I ft 



M. I. STORK, 
Bookseller, 

Leesburg, Va. 




Class 
Book. 






B^ 






__ 



... 



V 



THE 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



GREEK GRAMMAR; 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
GREEK GRAMMARS EXTANT. 



FOR TIIE 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



BY REV. PETER BULLIONS, D, D M 

LATE PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IX THE Al.liANY ACADEMY ; AUTHOR OF THE SERIES 

OF GRAMMARS. GREEK, LATIN, \ \ 1 > IM.IIMI. ON THE SAME 

PLAN; A GREEK READER, ETO. ETC. 



FORTY-SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND IMPROVED. 



NEW YOEK: 

PRATT, OAKLEY & COMPANY, 

21 MURRAY STREET. 

lRf)9. 



fA 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eignt nandred and 
fifty -three, by Peter Bullions, in the Clerk's oflice oi the District Court 
of the United States for the Northern District of New-York. 



404426 



\V 



PREFACE. 



This work has now been so long before the public, and is so 
well known, that a detailed account of it is unnecessary. It is 
sufficient to say, that the object intended to be accomplished was, 
to provide a comprehensive manual of Greek Grammar, adapted 
to the use of younger as well as of more advanced students in 
our schools and colleges. 

Time and experience have only strengthened the conviction, 
long entertained, that no system of Grammar will answer a good 
purpose, for those who pursue this study at an early age, which 
does not present the leading facts and principles in such a way 
as to be easily committed to memory, and so to be always ready 
for immediate application when necessary. This principle has 
been steadily kept in view in preparing the following work, as 
well as the others belonging to this series. The leading and fun- 
damental principles have been reduced to definitions and rules, 
brief, and easy to be committed to memory, and are rendered 
comprehensive by being printed in large type ; while, at the 
same time, copious illustrations of these principles, and of the ex- 
ceptions and varieties of usage under them, with every thing im- 
portant to aid the advanced student, have been inserted in their 
place in smaller type, in the form of Observations and Notes, 
all of which are numbered for the sake of easy reference. 

When the leading parts of Grammar are first actually com- 
mitted to memory, and then constantly applied in the inflection 
of words, and in analyzing their forms, they soon become so 
thoroughly understood and fixed in the memory as hardly ever 
to be effaced, and to be always ready afterwards to account for 
every form which words, in their numerous changes, assume, and 
to solve every difficulty caused by these changes almost without 
an effort of thought. A student, though young, if thus exercised 
but for one year or two, has an immense advantage, in the future 
prosecution of his studies, over those who have not laid the foun- 
dation of their success ip a thorough course of drilling. 

In the preface to the first edition, a full statement was given 
of the principal sources from which the materials here collected 
were drawn, and which need not here be reoeated. Suffice it to 



IV PREFACE. 

say, the author has not hesitated to avail himself of every assist- 
ance within his reach, and to gather from every quarter, espe- 
cially from the ample stores of German Philologists, whatever 
appeared suited to his design. The labor of condensing and 
arranging, and, to borrow a term from the printers' vocabulary, 
justifying the several parts with due regard to harmony and pro- 
portion, into one compact whole, has been very great. 

I would beg leave, in this place, to call the attention of stu- 
dents and of teachers, who have not yet examined the subject, to 
the method of analyzing and forming the tenses of the verb 
which is here exhibited. No part of Greek Grammar has hither- 
to proved so puzzling and harassing to the pupil as this. For 
want of understanding the few simple principles, on which the 
numerous changes in the form of the verb depend, they appeal 
to him intricate, arbitrary, and incomprehensible, to such a de- 
gree as to render his prospect of fully mastering them almost 
hopeless. That this is owing, in a great measure, to the method 
of forming the different tenses by deriving one tense from 
another to which it has some real or fancied resemblance, ap- 
pears to me beyond a doubt. As there is no foundation in truth 
for this mode of formation, so almost every writer, following 
imagination as his guide, has proposed a different theory upon 
the subject. One, for example, forms the perfect passive from its 
own future. Another, with equal ingenuity, forms the future 
from its own perfect, through the medium of the first aorist 
passive ! Another supposes he has simplified the whole matter 
by deriving every tense in the passive voice from its corre- 
sponding tense in the active voice, by making the simple and 
natural change of -ipw into (pfrriaoucu, -£a> into -x&i'iaouat,, -ipu 
into -q>&r]v, -$a into -X&yv, -<P« into -fifiui, -/a into -y/ucu, and 
-xcc into -^at, sometimes into .a/uat,. Another still, in order to 
arrive, for example at the first aorist passive, starts with the 
present active, and, by a succession of stages, arrives at the 
end of his journey, thus, OTQsqxo, Icrtgeipa, eorgEcca, eoTga/uficu, 
laxganxav^ iaxgdcpdijv ; and when he gets there he finds he 
has missed his way after all,' for the first aorist of the verb 
is not &GiQ&q>Qrjv but i(Txgscpd-7]v ; and to bring him thither, 
another rule has to be invented, nearly as dark as the 
road he has already travelled; viz., "Verbs which change 
s of the future into o of the perfect active, and into a 
of the perfect passive, take s again in the first aorist ; as, 
^oxganxat, £axg£(p&?]v ." What can be more perplexing and 
arbitary than such a process ? It is fortunate for the rising 
generation that such a system is beginning to pass away, and 



PREFACE. V 

to Professor Theirsch, of Germany, must we regard ourselves 
as chiefly indebted for the deliverance. Throwing aside the 
complicated systems of rules and exceptions which such theories 
had rendered necessary, he directs to the more simple and philo 
6ophical method of observing and stating the fact, that the root 
or stem runs unchanged, or but slightly so, through the whole 
verb ; and that one part differs from another in form, only in the 
part prefixed and added to the stem, and that in all verbs these 
parts are nearly the same. Instead, therefore, of forming one 
tense from another by a tedious and complicated process, every 
tense is formed at once immediately from its root by simply an- 
nexing the proper tense-ending, and prefixing the augment in the 
tenses that require it. Thus, for the sake of comparison, instead 
of the laborious and clumsy process above ; in order to form the 
1 aor. passive of GtQtyco, all that is necessary is to annex the 
aorist tense-ending -&qv to the root otQtcp, prefixing the aug- 
ment, and it is done, — you have EGTQsy&nv at once ; and so it is 
with every other tense. 

The whole system of forming the tenses from the root, accord- 
ing to this method, is given in a brief space (§ 93); and all its 
modifications, as applied to the different classes of mute, pure, 
and liquid verbs, occupy only about three pages. By forming 
the tenses in this way, the Greek verb will be found a simple, 
regular, and beautiful structure, as all that belongs to the lan- 
guage is. And I hesitate not again to say, after many years' 
further experience, and after repeated examinations of other the- 
ories, that in my opinion " this method, for beauty, simplicity, and 
philosophical accuracy, greatly surpasses every other system of 
analysis; and that a more minute, familiar, and certain know- 
ledge of the Greek verb can be obtained, with much more ease, 
and in a shorter time, by studying it in this way than in any 
other." 



REVISED EDITION. 

New plates for this work having become necessary, the oppor- 
tunity thus offered has been embraced, to correct such errors and 
inaccuracies as had been observed, — to make such additions and 
improvements as were deemed important, to add to the value and 
completeness of the work, and to render it still more worthy of 
the public favor. In a few instances, the mode of expression has 
been slightly changed, partly to render it more accurate, and 
partly to make the Series of Grammars still more unitbrm. For 



VI PREFACE. 

this reason, also, a few changes have been made in the arrange- 
ment of the matter ; but none of these are of such a nature or 
extent as to alter the character of the book, or prevent its being 
used in the same class with the former editions. These change,* 
are chiefly the following : The general rules for the accents have 
been added to § 5-1, and the special rules for each declension, 
and for verbs, have been transferred from § 209 to their respec- 
tive declensions, <fcc, in order to be studied in their place ; and 
the rules for contractions, in the first and second declensions, 
have been transferred to these declensions respectively ; so that 
all that belongs to each declension will be found in its proper 
place under that declension. The analysis of the terminations 
of verbs, formerly in the Appendix, has been added to § 91 ; and 
the table of contract verbs, also in the Appendix, has been placed 
after the Paradigm of the Verb, pp. 136, 137. The sections on 
Numerals have been placed before the sections on the Compari- 
son of Adjectives, in accordance with the arrangement in the 
English and the Latin Grammar. And lastly, the section on 
the Analysis of Sentences has been enlarged, and transferred from 
the Appendix to its place immediately after the Syntax. By 
these changes of arrangement, the several articles affected by 
them have been rendered more compact and complete ; and the 
matter belonging to them, being brought together, is less scat- 
tered than before. As a consequence of this, however, the pages 
in this edition do not correspond to those in former editions ; and 
also the section numbers from § 18 to § 41 of the former edition, 
and from § 51 to § 59, have been changed, while the matter in 
each section remains the same as before. In order to obviate any 
difficulty from this cause in the way of reference, a list of these 
sections, indicating the change of number, is given on p. xii. 

Thus have the Grammars belonging to this series, viz., the 
Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language, the 
Principles of Latin Grammar, and the Principles of Greek Gram- 
mar, been thoroughly revised, and, it is hoped, greatly improved; 
greater similarity and uniformity have been effected both in ex- 
pression and arrangement, — the references from one work to 
another, for explanation and comparison, have been greatly in- 
creased in number, and in all, a running series of numbers, from 
beginning to end, for the convenience of reference, has been in- 
troduced. No labor or expense has been spared to render this 
whole series of elementary books unique, practical, accurate, and 
comprehensive. Each work, though connected with the others 
as a series, is complete in itself, and being equally remote from 



PREFACE. Vll 

a meagre skeleton, or outline, on the one hand, and a diffuse, ex- 
tended treatise on the other, is convenient in size, pleasing to the 
eye, and carefully adapted to the purposes of instruction. 

The author takes this opportunity of acknowledging grate- 
fully the favor with which his works have been received by 
teachers and others, and begs leave to assure them, that while no 
hange will hereafter be made in those now completed, no effort 
will be wanting to render those he may yet publish, worthy of 
their notice. 

New- York, July, 1853. 



HINTS RESPECTING THE METHOD OF STUDYING THIS 
GRAMMAR. 

Those who have had experience in teaching the Greek language, will 
need no instructions from nie how to study this, or any other Grammar 
which they may think fit to use; but still a few hints as to the way in 
which it is intended to be used may not be useless to the young teacher, 
or to the student who may be under the necessity of prosecuting his 
studies without a teacher. 

It i3 by no means intended that the new beginner should study, and 
much less commit to memory, every thing in the book. It is presumed 
that he comes to the study of Greek with some knowledge of the Eng- 
lish and Latin Grammars, and he will therefore throughout meet with 
much with which he is already acquainted, and which will require no 
new labour. In general, definitions and rales printed in large type, to- 
gether with the paradigms of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and^verbs, are 
about all that should be attended to at first, but these should be com- 
mitted very accurately to memory, and repeated so often in daily re- 
visals, as to become easy and familiar. If this is not done, the student's 
progress will be slow and embarrassed at every step, which otherwise 
would be rapid, easy, and pleasant. By youth of ordinary capacity, 
this will generally be effected in the course of six or seven weeks. It 
is then time to begin to read easy sentences, simply with a view to fur- 
nish a praxis on the rules and paradigms previously committed. In this 
exercise, every word should be declined, aud every rule belonging to its 
inflection should be repeated, till it can be done not only correctly and 
easily, but almost without an effort. Two or three lines a day will be 
sufficient at first — increasing the quantity no faster than the pupil is 
able thoroughly to analyze every word. Simultaneously with this, aB a 
part of each recitation, the part of the Grammar already committed 
should be reviewed repeatedly, first, in shorter, and then in longer 
portions, till the pupil is able to run over the whole in a recitation of 
fifteen or twenty minutes. All this may be effected in the space of 
three or four months. Longer lessons will then be proper, and along 
with this, the study of the Grammar, taking up the more important 
parts of what was omitted before, not to commit to memory, but to 
etudy them so as to become familiar with them, and be able to refer tc 
them at once when they may be needed. By going over the Gram- 



Vlll PEEFACE. 

mar two or three times, in this manner, in the course of a year, every 
part -will become connected in the mind with the rules to which these 
parts belong, so as to be readily recalled by them. 

There are two or three points to which it is necessary for the pupil 
to pay special attention. First, The Rules of Euphony, § 6. To the eu- 
phony of their language the Greeks paid the greatest attention. In or- 
der to avoid the harsh sound which would be the result of certain con- 
sonants coming together, they often exchanged a consonant in certain 
situations for another of more pleasing sound ; sometimes they changed 
their order, sometimes dropped one of them, or inserted another. To 
this is owing, in part, the apparent irregularity in the flection of nouns 
and verbs, which has led to form so many perplexing rules for cases and 
tenses. The rules of euphony extend, not to the flection of nouns only, 
but to the whole structure of the language — to the composition and 
derivation of words, — and even to the collocation of them in a sen- 
tence. Those principles are few, thoroughly systematized, and very 
easy to be comprehended. This part, and, as fundamental to it, the 
fourth section, should be thoroughly mastered before proceeding to the 
third declension, where these rules will be needed. 

Another thing requiring special attention, and of almost equal im- 
portance, is, the rules for contraction. These should be studied in their 
place after each declension, or they may be omitted till the first re- 
visal. A perfect readiness in the rules of contraction renders a para- 
digm of contract verbs entirely unnecessary. Still, as some may wish 
to have such a paradigm, it is furnished in § 100. 

The last thing to which I would invite special attention, is the mode 
of teaching the Greek verb, which, on account of its numerous changes, 
and these effected differently in different verbs by the rules of euphony, 
according to the consonants of which it consists, or which concur in the 
course of inflection, has been regarded as so intricate and difficult. First 
of all, it is necessary to ascertain, in every verb, the root, or stem, which, 
in certain cases, undergoes changes peculiar to itself. These, however, 
are few, and under a very few short and plain rules, §§ 82 — 85. On 
these the pupil should be drilled till he can, with perfect readiness and 
certainty, tell the root of any regular verb as soon as the verb is named ; 
and also its second and third forms, when they differ from the first. 
This may be the work of one or two days. To the root is prefixed the 
augment in certain tenses, the rules for which will be found in § 88, 
and require no special notice. The next step is to commit the tables of 
terminations, § 92, very accurately to memory, beginning at the top of 
each column and proceeding down the page ; this will be much more 
easily accomplished than to commit the paradigm of the verb, and will 
answer a better purpose. All that then remains is to learn the method 
of forming each tense by annexing the tense-endings, § 93, to the pro- 
per root, according to the rules for mute, pure, and liquid verbs in 
§§ 94, 96, 97. This is an important exercise, and should be persevered 
in, till the utmost accuracy, ease, and readiness is attained. 

The syntax of the Greek language is a highly important part of the 
subject, and should be diligently and carefully studied ; but this maybe 
postponed to the second year, as the rules of syntax common to the 
Latin and Greek will be sufficient for the earlier stages. The subject of 
analysis and t ranslation, at the end of Syntax, deserves special attention, 



INDEX 



PAGR 

Accents 6 

first declension ... 21 
second declension . . 26 
third declension . . 29 

verbs 97 

Accusative of 3d decl. ... 34 
construction of . 250 
governed by an in- 
transitive verb . 262 

Adjectives, of 52 

of the 1st and 2d 

decL .... 53 
of the 1st and 3d 

decl 55 

of two terminations 59 
irregular .... 61 
comparison of . 67, 68 
by -Lo)v -MJToq 69 
comparison of irre- 
gular .... 70 
defective . . 70 
dialects of .71 
concord of, with a 

substantive . . 206 
other words used as 206 
used adverbially . 268 
obs. on the con- 
cord of . . . 206 
pronouns, construc- 
tion and use of. 210 
words related, con- 
struction of . . 221 
Adverbs, signification of . .186 
formation and deri- 
vation of . . .188 
comparison of . . . 189 
construction of . . 267 
Adverbial particles (insepara- 
ble) 190 

Alphabet 1 

Anacolutha 284 

Analysis . 294 



P>OB 

Apostrophe ... 8 

Apposition ... . 205 

Article .... . . 51 

dialects of . ... 62 

construction and use of 214 
as a demonstrative pro- 
noun 62, 76 

as a relative and per- 
sonal pronoun 52, 78, 118 

Augment, of 106 

rules for 1U7 

place of, in compound 

words 109 

observations on . .109 
Auxiliary verbs 95 

Caesural pause 312 

Case, of 19 

Characteristic of the verb, of . 99 

Circumstances, construction of 259 

of cause or origin . 260 

of limitation . . 261 

of cause, manner, 

and instrument . 263 
of place .... 264 
of time . . . .265 
of measure . . . 265 
of price .... 266 
of exclamation . . 266 
Comparative deg., construc- 
tion and use of 209 

Comparison of adjectives . 67, 68 

68 
69 
70 
70 
71 
235 
196 



general rule for 

in -io)v and -iato<i 

irregular . . 

defective . . 

dialects of . 

government of 
Conjunctions, of . . . 

construction of . 292 

signif. and use of 196 

Consonants, of 4 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Contractions, of 24 


Gender, of 


PAGB 

18 


of the 1st decl. . 


25 


Genders of the 3d decl. . . 


39 


of the 2d decl. . 


28 


Genitive of do 


31 


of the 3d decl. . 


41 


of adjectives of do. . 


33 


general rules for 


41 


obs. on construction 




exercises on . . 


42 


of 


228 


special rules' for. 


43 


governed by substan- 




examples of . 44-4/7 


tives 


229 






by adj. in the 




Dative pluraL 3d decl. of . . 


36 


neut. gender . 


231 


construction of . . . 


241 


by adjectives . 


232 


after substantives . . 


241 


by comp. degree 


235 


governed by adjectives 


242 


by verbs . . . 
Government, of 


236 


by verbals in -roq and 




227 


-T£0<? 


243 






by verbs 


244 


Imperative mood, syntax of . 


276 


by impersonal verbs . 


248 


Impersonal verbs 


168 


Declension, general rules for . 


20 


construction of 


248 


first 


21 


Indicative, construction of . . 


274 


second .... 


25 


Infinitive, construction of . . 


280 


do. Attic form of 


27 


as a verbal noun . . 


281 


third 


29 


without a subject . 


281 


gen. of. . . . 


31 


with a subject . . 


283 


do. of adj. . . 


33 


used absolutely . . 


285 


accusative of 


34 






vocative of . . 


35 


Metre, of 


307 


dative plural of 


36 


Iambic . . 






309 


dialects of . . 


38 


Trochaic . 






309 


genders of . . 


39 


Anapaestic . 






309 


Deponent verbs 


167 


Dactylic 






310 


Dialects of the 1st decl. . . . 


23 


Choriambic 






310 


of the 2d .... 


27 


Antispastic 






311 


of the 3d 


38 


Ionic a majore 




311 


of the article . . . 


52 


Ionic a minore 




312 


of comparison . . . 


71 


Paeonic . . . 




312 


of the pronoun . . 


81 


Metres compound, of 




313 


of the verb .... 


144 


tables of . . 




314 


of Ei[xl 


162 


Mood vowels, of . . 




111 


Diaeresis 


9 


Moods, subjunctive and 


opta 




Diastole 


9 


tive, construction of 




276 


Digamma 

Diphthongs 


8 


Mutes 




4 


2 










Few present, formation of 


170 


Enclitics 


6 


Negatives, of 


269 


Etymology 


15 


double . . . 


270 


Euphony, rules of .... 


10 


Nom. case, construction of 


223 






concord of ... . 


225 


Figures affecting syllables 
Final letters of the active voice 


9 


Nouns, of 


16 


111 


accidents of . . . 


17 


Final letters of the mid. and 




person of ... . 


17 


pats, voices 


111 


gender of ... . 


18 


of verbs in /u 


150 


number of 






18 



INDEX. 



XI 



Nouns, case of 


PAGB 

19 


declension of ., . . 


19 


irregular, of . . . 


48 


defective, of ... . 


50 


of peculiar significa- 




tion 


50 


Number, of 


18 


Numbers, cardinal . . . 


63 


ordinal . . . 


64 


notation of . . 


65 


table of . . . 


66 


Numerals, classes of . . . 


. 62 


Orthography 


. 1 



Paradigm of the active voice . 130 
of the middle . . 132 
of the passive . .134 
of contract verbs . 136 
of verbs in -/ii . . 1 54 

Participles, of 96 

declension of . . . 57 
the construction of . 286 
for the infinitive . . 288 
with lav&dvo), <fcc. . 290 
with tlf.il, yivo/nat,, ttc. 290 
in the case absolute . 291 
Particles, conjunctive and ad- 
verbial 190, 196 

signification of . .197 

Parts of speech 16 

indeclinable, of the 15 
Passive voice, construction of 

cases with 257 

Prepositions, of 191 

alphabetical list of 191 
construction of . 272 
in compo- 
sition . 274 
Pronouns, personal .... 72 
possessive ... 74 
construction of 213 
in apposition . 205 
definite . . . . 74 
construction of 210 
reflexive .... 75 
reciprocal ... 76 
demonstrative . . 76 
construction of 210 
relative .... 77 
concord of . .218 
attraction of 220 



PAOH 

Pronouns, relat., other words 

used as . 219 

in the sense of 

other words 220 

interrogative . . 78 

construction of 213 

indefinite .... 79 

construction of 212 

correlative ... 80 

dialects of ... 81 

Prosody 299 

Punctuation 14 

Root of nouns and adj. ... 13 
of the verb, of .... 99 
of finding and changing 99 
second of the .... 102 

third 103 

verbs wanting 2d and 3d 104 
of the tenses .... 105 

Sentences, simple and com- 
plex 203,294 

Spiritus, of the 7 

Superlative degree, construc- 
tion and use of 209 

Syllables 5 

Syntax 203 

parts of 204 

general principles of . 204 
of the verb .... 274 

Table of vowel sounds . . 3 

Tense-root 105 

Tense-signs 105 

Tense-endings 105 

table of 117 

Tenses, of 90 

obs. on the use of . . 93 
of mute and pure verbs, 
formation of . . .117 
examples of . .119 
of liquid verbs, forma- 
tion of 125 

formation, examples of 126 
of verbs in fit,, of . . 149 
formation of . .150 
of verbs formed from 

the primitive . 159, 160 

terminations of . . .111 

table of . . .114 

of verbs in /« . 149 



JOl 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Verbs, of 82 

different kinds of . .84 
inflection of . . . .85 
auxiliary ... .95 
conjugation of . . .98 
analysis of . . . .99 

root of 99 

characteristic of . . . 99 

augment of 106 

termination of . . . .111 
mute, special rules for . 118 
pure, do. do. . 122 
liquid, do. do. . 125 

contract, of 128 

paradigm of . .136 

dialects of 144 

of the 2d conjugation . 147 

Verbs in pi,, tenses of . 150, 160 

root of 149 

final letters 149 

combination of ... 150 
paradigm of . . . .154 

obs. on 158 

irreg. and defective 160, 169 
inflection of . . .161 



Verbs, alphabetical list of . . 


172 


deponent 


167 


impersonal 


168 


of peculiar signification 


168 


concord of 


224 


rules and obs. 


225 


governing the genitive . 
dative 


236 


244 


accus. 


250 


ace. & gen. 


253 


ace. & dat. 


254 


two accus. 


255 


syntax of 


274 


Voice, of. ...... . 


85 


active, table of . . . 


130 


obs. on ... . 


138 


middle, of 


86 


tenses of . . . 


87 


table of . . . 


132 


passive, table of . . . 


134 


middle and passive, 2d 




conj., obs. on . . . 


158 


Vowels, of 


2 


pronunciation of . . 


3 


"Words 


15 



The following is a list of the Sections whose numbers have 
been altered in the present edition. The first column contains 
the number of the sections in former editions ; the second gives 
the number of the same sections in this edition. All the other 
sections are the same as in former editions. 



18 is now § 20 


§ 30 is now 


§33 


§51 is 


now § 54 


19 21 


31 


39 


52 


55 


20 23 


32 


40 


53 


56 


21 24 


33 


41 


54 


57 


22 25 


34 


18 


55 


58 


23 26 


35 


19 


56 


59 


24 27 


36 


22 


57 


51 


25 28 


37 


34 


58 


52 


26 29 


38 


35 


59 


53 


27 30 


39 


36 


60 


60 


28 31 


40 


37 


100 


99 


29 32 


41 


38 


218 


100 



_ 



IL'JtC&A^IJIKjE© (DMAIBMMlB^ILAaracDITS.. 




ijrtJlnaenb GreeJvMS.S. &Editions. 




CO, 


XOCOTTfp, 


lw, Vf> 


Qav. 


(fa, v fee , 






7$, o, «»i F 
yr), jea/tci, 




<r0, 


%' 


#TX.X 


7Wj( HF<p<£}^coU>V, 


tf~>o, <?,>."J, 


<fy 7 ' 


av, 


/Jfi, /UOO, 


av. 


*&ft] % "•• , 


cL'7£>, 


drto, 


{jl0, (J£0, 


o-y 


tfV, 


OAfCU, 


avz8, 


/>/y, ^65 V, 


■sr 


(T-t, 


CUrtty/, 


avW, 


/y^, /^<y>, 


%• 


*x- 


^ 


y*?, 


/y<,, (JJSTCt;, 


J.".), 


■tfept, 




yev, 


(jjjjj, fJsrjv* 


€ 


XaZs t 


n> 


(*}$* f***v* 


■£ tJ, 


Tyv, 








&6. 


1T0, 


4 


*> 


8,<5^> ov,ov, 


<R*. 


■tov. 


^4 ? 


\ 6 t,d '. 


"tf#, ^x, 


M?8, 


xov, 


^ 


ij, 


C/7*3, C/TTy 1 , -T^COO, 
/ ) 


idr, 


rovs y 


ft.j. 


<?&'. 


''wJco , r7£OsQ C(s , 


TC.fl, 


■*f. 




eT, 


•55^, ^&ro, 


■?.., ^ 


vqo, 




elvao, 


•Olfl > -^Vp, 


■TT, , O , 


ro>, 




876, 


<2»V; ?rf, .yT«?^ 


•tfc£ 


! 
Tor, 


&•*• 


^X,A\, 


■^o *» -fp^ 


•f. 


V, 


c^.ff. 


£?A 


•o£2, Ttf#, 


y- 


VI , 


e&#. 


A, • 


T&^>6>^ -70C$, 


«'','--<', 


Vf>, 


KtyY 


SJtstoy, 


ey, pa, 


• ' <"</, 


v< 


&6. 


8$€8 ?J, 


<2A ?'- 


•:;/, 


V- r r'0 


bdvu.aol 


\ 8jci\ 


^O, ^>#, 


-'-no. 


veto, 


cp,$* 


ty 


p^, £>^>, 


XG, 


yafi,, 


fit. 


ecf-co, 


/ 1# , <7<5t , 


%'■; 


X? l > 


< 


e v , 




0), 

! 



GREEK GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. — Orthography treats of letters, and the mode 
of combining them into syllables and words. 

2. — A letter is a mark or character used to represent an ele- 
mentary sound of the human voice. The Greek alphabet con- 
sists of twenty-four letters, namely : 



FORM. 


NAME. 


PCWEB. 




A a 


Alpha 


a 


in 


father 


B § 


Beta 


b 


in 


bee 


r y f* 


Gamma 


9 


in 


go 


A 8 


Delta 


d 


in 


did 


E s 


JEpsilon 


e 


in 


met 


Z £ 


Zeta zz ( = 


= dz) 


in 


Nebuchadnezzar 


H n 


Eta 


*? 


in 


they 


Q # 


Theta 


th 


in 


thick 


I i 


Iota 


i 


in 


pin 


K x 


Kappa 


*, 


or < 


j hard, kin, can 


A I 


Lambda 


I 


in 


fay, eel 


JW> 


Mu 


m 


in 


madam 


N v 


Nu 


n 


in 


nun 


s i 


Xi 


X 


in 


fox 


O o 


Omikron 





in 


tyro, not 


n 7z 


Pi 


P 


in 


pea 


P Q 


Rho 


r 


in 


row 


2 (T, final e 


Sigma 


s 


in 


sun, us 


T r 7 


Tau 


t 


in 


tea, not 


T v 


Upsilon 


u 


in 


brute 


cp 


Phi 


ph 


in 


philo 


x x 


Chi 


ch 


in 


buch (German) 


Wip 


Psi 


2?s 


in 


lips 


a w 


Omega 





in 


no, tone 


* The letter y 


before x, y, /, or 


£, is 80 


unded like ng in sing 


thus, ayytl.oq, ay/.m 


', pronounced ang- 


elos, ang 


-k6n. 





2 VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. § 1, 2. 

The letters in the Greek alphabet are either Vowels or Con- 
sonants. 



3.— § 1. VOWELS. 

1. A vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
sound, and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. The 
vowels are seven ; viz., 

Two short, e, o. 

Two long, jj y co. 

Three doubtful, ce, t, v. 

2. ^, t, v, are called doubtful, because they are sometimes 
short, and sometimes long. Thus, 

a in TtatiJQ, is always short. 

a in Xaog, is always long. 

a in J%Qi]g, may be either long or short. 

3. There are but five distinct vowel sounds in the Greek lan- 
guage, viz., a, e, i, o, v. The r\, and go, are used to express the 
lengthened sound of s and 0. The vowel sounds then may be 
thus expressed : 

Short, £, 0, a, 1, v. 
Long, 37, 00, a, £, i). 



4.— § 2. DIPHTHONGS. 

1. The union of two vowels in one sound is called a diph- 
thong. Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. 

Note 1. The first vowel of a diphthong in Greek, is called the pre- 
positive vowel ; and the second, the subjunctive vowel. 

2. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 
sounded. In Greek, the proper diphthongs are six; and are 
formed from a, «, 0, with 1 or v subjoined : thus, 

From a are formed ai and av. 
From s are formed si and sv. 
From are formed 01 and ov. 

3. An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the 
vowels is sounded. The improper diphthongs in Greek are also 
six ; viz., at, m, cot, commonly written a, 77, cp, in which the first 
vowel only is sounded ; and qv, cov, vi, in which the last vowel 
chiefly is sounded, slightly modified, however, by an imperfect 
sound of the first. These three might very properly be classed 
as proper diphthongs. 



n 



PRONUNCIATION. 



Note 2. The iota (t) in a, y, w, from its position under the preposi- 
tive vowel, is called iota subscript. But when this vowel is a capital, 
the » is written after it ; as, "AiSt\ = a<fyj ; t <w I aoq>o)Z = tw aoq>o>. 

4. A vowel, preceded by another vowel, with which it does 
not form a diphthong, is said to be pure. Thus, a is pure in yia. 
and qnXla ; og is pure in noXsog, Qudiog t &c. 



§3. THE PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS AND DIPH- 
THONGS. 

5 — The ancient pronunciation of the Greek vowels and diphthongs 
cannot now be determined with certainty in all cases. The knowledge 
we have of it is derived chiefly from Greek words that appear in Latin, 
and Latin words that appear in Greek ; — from imitation of natural 
sounds, as the bleating of" the sheep, or the barking of the dog; — from 
a play upon words, and other hints of a similar character. 

6. — If uniformity in the pronunciation of the Greek, is to be aimed 
at — and it is certainly desirable that it should — the Erasmian method, 
among all others now in use, seems entitled to preference as a standard, 
not only on account of its simplicity and perspicuity, but also as having 
the authority of the ancients, so far as this can be ascertained, decid- 
edly in its favor. It is, moreover, the pronunciation that generally 
prevails in Europe, and has been adopted in some of the most distin- 
guished schools in America. The whole system is exhibited in the fol 
lowing 

7. — Table of Vowel and Diphthongal Sounds. 



Short a, 


like a 


in Jehovah 


as [lovaci 


Long a, 


like a 


in far 


as cpagog 


Short €, 


like e' 


in met 


as fiEv 


Long r\, 


like ey 


in they 


as ftijoog 


Short l, 


like i 


in tin 


as (xiv 


Long if 


like i 


in machine 


as Girog 


Short o, 


like o 


in tyro, not 


as tovog 


Long co, 


like o 


in go, tone 


as «yeo, cpowr t 


Short v, 


like u 


in brute 


as TV7lt(0 


Long v, 


like u 


in tune 


as xvvog 


at, 


like ay 


in aye 


as rv\pai 


av, 


like ou 


in our, thou 


as avzog 


£1, 


like i 


in ice 


as Big, cpiXei 


ev, 


like eu 


in feud 


as cpevyco 


oi, 


like oi 


in oil 


as olda. 


ov, 


like ou 


in ragout 


as ovdeig 


rjv, 


like ew 


in few 


as ijv%6[ii]v 


GOV, 


like ow 


in how 


as ojvrog 


w, 


like ui 


in quick, or 


like the English w 



4 CONSONANTS. § 4 

8 ._§ 4. CONSONANTS. 

1. A consonant is a letter which represents an articulate 
Bound, and, in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but 
always in connection with a vowel or diphthong. 

Consonants are divided into mutes, semi-vowels, and double 
consonants. 

2. The mutes are nine, and are divided into three classes, ac- 
cording to their strength ; viz. , 

Smooth, 7i, x, t. 
Middle, ft y, 8. 
Aspirate, cp, #, &. 

3. By strength is meant the force of voice, or of breathing re 
quisite in pronouncing, which is different in each of the classes 
specified, — the smooth mutes requiring the least ; the aspirates, 
the greatest ; and the middle, a degree of force intermediate be- 
tween the other two. 

4. Each smooth mute has its own middle and its own aspi- 
rate ; and these three are called mutes of the same sound, or of 
the same order, because they are pronounced by the same organ ; 
thus, 

JZ-mutes, or labials, n, ft qp. 
K-mutes, or palatals, x, y, %. 
X-mutes, or dentals, t, d, &. 

Obs. In mutes of the same sound, one is frequently changed 
for another. 

5. The semi-vowels are five, 1, ji, v, a, g. Of these X, [i, v, q, 
are called liquids, because they readily unite with, or flow into, 
the sound of other consonants. 

6. The double consonants are three, ip, J, f . They are formed 
from the three orders of mutes with g ; thus, 

a, ft <p, ) C rp, ) C ps. 

*> 7> X* f with ^ makes •<■ j, >• equivalent to < x. 
t, 6, #, ) ( f, ) ( z. 

7. In the declension of nouns and verbs, when a ?r-mute, or a 
x-mute, would be followed by g, the double consonant \p or £ is 
substituted for the two ; thus, instead of JJoafoi or nX&tata, must 
be written Jloaxpi, tzXe^o), &c But a r-mute, coming before g t 
must be rejected ; thus, for dvvtaco must be written avvcoa, &<x 
44-8. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 5 

8. In like manner a double consonant may be resolved into 
the mute from which it is formed, and g ; thus, 

ip may be resolved into fig, @g, or (pg. 

| into ag, yg, or x±- 

f into rg, Sg, or &g. 

This is done when, in the declension of nouns and verbs, i 

becomes necessary to separate the g from the mute with which i 

is combined ; thus, laikaip, by dropping the g becomes Xatkan , 

x6qcc% becomes xogax ; and so of other combinations. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 

9. — A syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a 
word, or so much of it as can be sounded at once. 

Every word has as many syllables as it has distinct vowel 
sounds. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 

A word of three syllables is called a Trissyllable. 

A word of many syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

10. — In a word of many "syllables, the last is called the final 
syllable ; the one next the last is called the penult, and the sylla- 
ble preceding that, is called the antepenult. 

To syllables belong certain marks and characters : these are — 

1. ACCENTS. 

11. — The accents in Greek are three; viz., the 
acute ('), the grave ( x ), and the circumflex (*). 

12. — Accents are supposed to have been used to indicate the tone o/ 
the accented syllable — the acute being used to mark an elevation k. '. 
tone, the grave a depression, and the circumflex, the union of both. 

GENERAL RULES. 

13. — In diphthongs the accent stands always on the subjunctive 
vowel; as, necda, rovzo', but on the prepositive of the diph- 
thongs a, xi, cp ; as, "Ai^t\g = adtjg. 

14. — The acute accent may stand on any one of the three last 
syllables of a word ; but on the antepenult, only when the final 
syllable is short. 

15. — The grave is understood on all syllables not accented with 
an acute or circumflex. The grave accent is used on the final 



6 SYLLABLES. § 5. 

syllable of a word when followed by another word with which it 
stands in connection ; as, avzog slsys ; but when the word stands 
alone, or not connected with words following it, the acute is used ; 
as, avzog, — zov avzov. 

16. — The circumflex can stand only on a long syllable, and 
that must be one of the two last ; and it can stand on the penult, 
only when the final syllable is short. 

17. — An accented penult, if long, and followed by a short sylla- 
ble, must have the circumflex ; but if the final syllable be long, 
the accent on the penult must be acute ; as, zovzo, zovzq>, ovzog, 
avzq. 

18 — Note. The diphthongs at, and ov final, syllables long only by 
position, and the Attic ox; instead of oq, are considered short in accen- 
tuation ; but the optative terminations oo and av, and ot in the adverb 
oXy.ov, are long. 

19 — In words declined by cases, except participles, the accentua- 
tion of the nominative can be ascertained only by consulting a good 
lexicon. That being ascertained, the accentuation of the oblique cases 
may be found by the rules of accent under each declension. These 
rules apply generally to adjectives and participles of the same declen 
eion. 

ENCLITICS. 

20. — Certain words of one or two syllables, when used in dis- 
course, throw back their accent on the preceding word, if in con- 
nection with it, and stand themselves without an accent. Such 
words are called enclitics. 

21. — The enclitics commonly in use are the following ; viz., 
1. The present indicative of the verbs djii and qpj^M in all the 
numbers and persons except the second person singular. 2. 
The indefinite zig, ri, in all its cases and numbers. 3. The pro- 
nouns {iov, fioi, fii — gov, ool, os — ov, ol, s — [iiv, viv, and most 
of those beginning with o"(jp. 4. The adverbs nag, nr k , not, nov, 
no#i, no'&tv, nozi, not interrogative, and, 5. The particles, 
7t(o, zt, zoi, &>jv ys, nsv or xe, vvv or vv, n(o, qa, and de insep- 
arable, as in ods. 

22. — When a word with an acute accent on the antepenult, or 

circumflex on the penult, is followed by an enclitic, it takes an 

acute on the final syllable, as the accent of the enclitic ; as, elsya 

[101, dojgov 1<5ZIV, cca \IGL \10V. 

23. — But if the preceding word have an acute accent on the 
penult, the enclitic of one syllable loses its accent, while the en- 
clitic of two syllables retains it ; as, Xoyog fiov, — Xoyog zivog, — 
Xoyog lazlv. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 7 

24. — When the preceding word has any accent on the final 
syllable, the enclitic following, whether of one or two syllables, 
loses its accent ; as, avt'iQ zig, — (pilot ere, — %ala7i6v iaziv, — yvv- 
aixav zivcov, &c. 

25. — When several enclitics occur in succession, the first 
having lost, or thrown back its accent on the preceding word, 
the second throws its accent always as an acute on the first, and 
the third on the second, &c, till the last only is without an ac- 
cent ; as, ei' tig nvd (pijal fioi noiouvai. 

26. — The enclitic retains its accent when it stands alone, or at 
the beginning of a clause or sentence — when the final vowel of 
the preceding word has been cut off by apostrophe — or when the 
enclitic word is emphatic. 

ACCENTS IN CONTRACTIONS. 

27. — In a concourse of vowels, if two syllables are converted 
into one, it is called a contraction. 

28. — If the first concurrent vowel has the acute accent, it is 
changed into a circumflex on the contracted syllable ; as, yilm, 
(film. 

29. — If the first concurrent vowel has not the acute accent, 
the contracted syllable has not the circumflex ; as, ye'veog, yivovg. 

2. SPIRITUS OR BREATHINGS. 

30. — The Spiritus, or breathings, are two ; the spiritus asper, 
or rough breathing, marked (' ) ; and the spiritus lenis, or soft 
breathing, marked ( ' ). 

31. — The spiritus asper has the force of the Latin H; thus, 
cifia is pronounced Hama. 

Note. Anciently H was the mark for the aspirate, in Greek, as it ia 
in Latin ; thus, kxaxov was written hekaton. 

32. — The spiritus lenis only indicates that the spiritus asper 
is not to be used. These marks are used as follows : 

1st. A vowel or diphthong, beginning a word, has always a 
spiritus. In the diphthong, it is placed over the second vowel ; 
as, c^ia f iym, evgt, ovzog ; but over the first in the diphthongs «, 

V> c 9- 

2d. Initial v has always the spiritus asper ; as, vnb, pronounced 
hupo. 

3d. Initial q has always the spiritus asper ; as, q/jtojq, pro- 
nounced rhetor ; q not initial, if single, has no spiritus ; if double 



8 SYLLABLES. § 5. 

the first has the spiritus lenis, and the second has the spiritua 
asper ; as, noocp, pronounced poro ; tioqqco, pronounced porrho. 

3. THE ^OLIC DIGAMMA. 

33. — The iEolic dialect, the most ancient form of the Greek 

language, had no spiritus asper, and it is seldom used in the 

Ionic. The want of it, in the former, was compensated, in all 

words beginning with a vowel, by a species of aspirate, now 

Called THE ^EOLIC DIGAMMA. 

34. — This was originally a full and strong consonant having 
the sound of the Latin F or V. It was called digamma, because 
its form (F) was that of a double f. It is thought to have been 
used by the ancients before words beginning with a vowel, and 
between two vowels, which, by its disuse at a later period, came 
together without forming a diphthong ; thus, ohog, 8ccq, ig, org, 
alcov, aoQVog, coov, and the like, were written or pronounced as 
if written, Fotvog, Fs'ao, Fig, oFig, aifcov, aFogvog, eoFov, &c, 
from which the Latin vinum, ver, vis, ovis, cevum, avernus, ovum, 
&c, were evidently derived before the digamma disappeared. 
Between two vowels, it was. at length softened down, and even 
with the JEolians passed into v. Thus we have avi)g, avcog, for 
the common arjo, ?jcog. This accounts for the form of some 
words in the Attic and common dialects, in which the digamma, 
softened into v, still remains, especially where followed by a con- 
sonant. Thus the ancient %iFco passed into %£vco, and lastly into 
%sco, which still retains in the future xevoco, the softened form 
of the ancient %eFgco. So xXaico, Attic xlaco, has in the future 
xkavaco. In like manner vaeg, the plural of vavg, still retains in 
the dative vavai, the softened form of the ancient vciFoi. 

35. — 4. The Apostrophe (') is written over the place of a short 
vowel which has been cut off from the end of a word ; as, alV 
iyco, for alia iyco. This is done when the following word begins 
with a vowel, and in compounds, when the first part ends, and 
the last begins, with a vowel ; 43-3, 1st. Sometimes the diph- 
thongs are elided by the poets ; as, fiovlo{j£ iyco for fiovloficu 
iyco ; and sometimes, after a long syllable, the initial vowel is cut 
off from the following word ; as, co 'ya&i for co aya&s. . 

36. — Exc. Instead of the apostrophe, or cutting off the final 
vowel, the concurring vowels are sometimes contracted ; as, 
nqovoyov, for noh sgyov ; xax, for xcu ix. 

37. — Note. The union, or contraction of such words, is indicated by 
the spiritus being placed over the vowel, at the place of junction, as in 
the preceding examples. 



§ 6. SYLLABLES. 9 

38. — 5. The Diastole is a comma inserted between the parts 
of a compound word, to distinguish it from another word consist- 
ing of the same letters ; as, zo,zs, and this, to distinguish it from 
7076, then ; o,zi, what, to distinguish it from ozi, because. Some- 
times they are written apart, without the comma ; thus, zo ze, 
o zi. 

39. — 6. The Diaeresis (") is placed over a vowel, to show 
hat it does not form a diphthong with the vowel which pre- 
cedes it ; as, oi'g, a sheep, nqavg, mild, pronounced o-is, pra-us. 

40. — 7. The figures affecting syllables are as follows : 

1st. Prosthesis is the prefixing of one or more letters to the 

beginning of a word ; as, GfiiAQog, for [Aixoog ; ItUooi, for 

ei'xoci. 
2d. Paragoge is the adding of one or more letters to the end 

of a word ; as, /]<j#«, for ?]g ; zqlgl, for zotg. 
3d. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters in the 

body of a word ; as, ellafe, for iXupe ; bnnoitoog, for 

onotZQog. 
4th. Syncope, is the taking away of one or more letters from 

the body of a word ; as, yX&ov, for r^Xv&ov ; ev(ju^v, for 

EVQrjGaptjv. 
5th. Aphceresis is the cutting off of one or more letters from 

the beginning of a word ; as, GZHQoni], for aGzeooTZi] ; 

bgztj for eoQzrj. 
6th. Apocope is the cutting off of one or more letters from 

the end of a word ; as, 86), for 86>fia ; HoGtidoS, for flo- 

Gtidoova. 
7th. Tmesis is a separating of the parts, in a compound word, 

by an intervening term ; as, vmg ziva tj^tiv, for vtwq- 

iyuy zivd. 
8th. Metathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables ; 

as, S7ZQad-ov, for 87iag&ov ; edgaxov, for idaqnov ; xdyzog, 

for xgazog. 
41. — Obs. The Ionians, by a species of Metathesis, change the 
breathing in a word ; as, xi&cov, for %(zc6v ; iv&avza, for ivzav&a. 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 

42. — In combining letters into words, the Greeks paid the 
strictest attention to Euphony, or agreeableness of sound. This 
principle, indeed, pervades the whole structure of the language. 
From a regard to this, they carefully avoided every concurrence 



10 EUPHONY. § 6. 

of consonants not easily pronounced together. The means by 
which this is effected may be summed up in the following — 

43. — RULES OF EUPHONY. 

(It is of great importance for the student to be very familiar with 
the following rules, and expert in applying them, before he enters on 
the 3d declension, as they are then required in almost every step. To 
aid him in this, a table of exercises is subjoined, in which he should 
practise, till he can correct the orthography, and give the rule with the 
greatest ease and readiness.) 

1. Words ending in 6i, and verbs of the third 
person in a and c, add v to the termination before 
a vowel, or before a pause ; as, 

IIugiv ei7t8v ixewoig, for nasi eitis ixeTvotg; also the word 
stKOGi (twenty), and the adverbs tzs'qvgi, navrdnaai, voGCpt, 
7ZQ0(>d'8, orna&e, as and vv. This was called by grammarians v 
icpelxvozixov, because, by preventing the hiatus between two 
vowels, it, as it were, drew the second vowel to the first. Among 
the poets, it is sometimes added to these terminations before a 
consonant, when it is necessary to render a final syllable long ; 
and sometimes, by the Attic prose writers, to give energy to the 
tone. 

Sometimes g is added, on the same principle ; thus, ovrco be- 
comes ovzwg. Also the particle ov is changed into ovx before a 
vowel, and into ov% before an aspirated vowel. 

2. When two mutes of a different sound come 
together, they must be of the same strength; i. e. 
they must be both smooth, or both middle, or both 
aspirate / as, tTird, d/SSbXov, a^&og. 

If, by derivation or declension, two mutes of different strength 
would come together, the former must take the class of the latter ; 
thus, the terminations tog, 8?]v, &eig, with yoacpto, the e» being 
omitted, form yoantog, yodfidtjv, yoacpd'eig; and of two mutes 
already combined, one cannot be changed without a correspond- 
ing change in the other. Thus in snrd and 6xrc6, if the i be 
changed into d, the n must be changed into /3, and the x into y ; 
as, sard, efldofiog ; oxzco, oySoog. 

3. A smooth mute in the end of a word is 
changed into its own aspirate before an aspirated 
vowel. This is done, — 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 11 

1st. In the composition of words ; thus, from in (for in i) and 
rtfitQci, comes icptjfiEQog. So from snzd, by apostrophe, 
eW, and i^iEQa, comes ECp&r'jpEQog ; from xaza and e vdco, 
xa&Evdco, &c. 

2d. When words stand together in a sentence; thus, «p' 
/}(««>, xa#' ?}^as?, aqp' oi>, &c, for «^r« j/jtuy, x«ra r t fidg, ano 
ov. 

3d. When words are united by contraction ; thus, zb IfidziM 
united become ftoipdziov ; zb ezeqov, frdzEoov, &c. 

Obs. 1. The middle mute 5 is never changed before an aspi- 
lated vowel ; as, oi'xad' Ixea&ai', and |3 and y, only before «, and 
«V in forming the perfect and the pluperfect active, 218, Obs. 2. 
- —The x in ix is never aspirated. 

4. When two successive syllables would begin 
with an aspirate, the first is changed into its own 
smooth ; and the spiritus asper, into the spiritus 
lenis ; thus, 

necpikqxa, not cpscpLlrjxa ; #£t<jf, Gen. ZQi%6g, not ftgixog ; so 
from the root &qe%, the verb is zqejcd, not &qe'%(» ; from #()£qp, 
TQECpto, not \)QE(pG> ; from ejf, f/w, not fyeo. (See below, 06s. 
3.) In like manner from #«qp, the root of &dnzco (R. 2.), is de- 
rived zdcpog, <fcc. 

Exceptions. To this rule there are five excep- 
tions; viz., 

Exc. 1. Compound words generally ; as, oovt&o&i'jgag, iepvyfj. 

Exc. 2. or x before & ; as, ydfti, %v&7jvcu. 

Exc. 3. When one of the aspirates is joined with another 
consonant ; as, &uqfd , eig, dnicp&id-ov, nv&EC&ou. But the rule 
holds when q follows the first aspirate, as above in zqe'%co, not 
-&QE'%ca. 

Exc. 4. If the second aspirate has been occasioned by a spiri- 
tus asper following it; as, i&q% 6 dvdganog, for s&qxj by apo- 
ccpe for t&rjXE ; nEq)Ev%(t for niqiEvy-d ; and so of others. 

Exc. 5. When the second aspirate belongs to the adverbial 
terminations &ev or &i ; as, 7iavza%6d'ev, Koqiv&o&l 

Obs. 2. Of three aspirates beginning successive syllables, it is 
usual to change only the first ; as, ZE&dyazai for &E&dtyarai. 
In some cases, however, the second also is changed ; as, zs'ra- 
qia, zs'zoocpot, for dsd-aya, d'td-gowa. 

Obs. 3. When the first of two aspirates is the spiritus asper 



12 EUPHONY. § 6. 

it is changed only before % ; thus, o&w, irdi, ycpa, <fec, preserve 
the spiritus asper before the aspirates & and q> ; but fyco must be 
changed into fym. 

Obs. 4. When the second aspirate is lost by inflection or 
otherwise, the first is resumed ; thus, e%(o, fut. £%<o ; tqs'xco, 
xW£oo ; TQtcpco, &Qeipn ; and the derivatives &Qenr6g, &qm- 
nxog, &c. 

Obs. 5. The second of two aspirates is seldom changed. It 
. s always done, however, in imperatives in &i ; as, tl&exij zvcp~ 
drjn ; for zid-e&i, TvqydTj&u 

Obs. 6. A mute may ^e doubled, but if it be an aspirate, the 
first is changed into its own smooth ; as, Jli&ig, not Aft&ig ; 
B(rA%og, not Ba%%og ; Mar&aiog, not Ma&ftalog ; JZanqitb, not 
JZucpcpco. 

5. Initial q is doubled when a short vowel is 
prefixed ; as, 

'PtWo, eqqmtov ; aQQSTtrjg, from a and qmcb ; TteQiqqoog, 
from jregt and (te'co. 

44. 1. THE MUTES BEFORE 2. 

6. A ^-mute before a, unites with it and forms 
ip ; as, XzItzco, XtmCxo, written Xtiipco. 

7. A #-mute before a, unites with it and forms 
£ ; as, rjxa, rjxtico, written rjgco. 

Exc. But in never changes x before a ; as exor&Uo). 

8. A r-mute before #, is rejected ; thus, 

Gcofxatm, adacoj oqvi&gi 
written acofiaai aow ogvm. ■ 

45. II. THE MUTES BEFORE M. 

9. A ^-mute before ft, is changed into ft ; thus, 

t£ZV7T[A,CU, tSTQlfiftai, pyQCCCpfldl, 

written rervpficu, TEZQifipai, yeyQafifiai. 
Exc. But after a liquid, a ^r-mute before \i is rejected ; as, 
TitTTEfifiai, for 7i87t8[i7i[xcu : — TsdccXficti, for rsd-alTTpcu. 

10. A #-mute before ft is changed into y ; thus, 

written Tzmleyficu, ptpgsyfiai. 
Hence / before \n, remains unchanged ; as, Xelsyfiat. 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 13 

11. A r-mute before p, is changed into a ; thus, 

nwzficu, ij()8idfiuit nintvd'fiai, 
written ijWGficu, 'iiQtiG(iai y 7rt f 7ieiOfiui. 
Obs. 1. To these rules, there are some exceptions in substan- 
tive forms, as, «xp/, not dyfitj ; Tior^iog, not aoGfiog. 

46. III. CHANGES OF THE LETTER N. 

12. N, before a ;r-mute, or yj, is changed into 
/u] thus, 

7Avnav(Oy XavfiavcQy ivcpvg, kvipv^ogy 
written XifiTrdvco, Xa^dvcoy ipyvg, 8{i*pv](og. 

13. iV, before a ^-mute, or £, is changed into y ; 
thus, 

faxufuu, cpvvydvoj, Tw%av(o, 7iXdv^co y 
written tyxufiai, (pvyydvoj, 7vy%dv<o, 7tXdy%<a. 

14. N, before a r-mute, remains unaltered ; as, 

ivtog, Gvvdew. 

15. N 9 before another liquid, is changed into 
the same ; thus, 

ivfuvm, Gwlafifidvo), avvQaTZTco, 
written ififnivos, GvXXafijjdvcQj GVQQaTzrco. 

16. N, before a or £ is usually rejected ; thus, 
dutfioi'Giy ovv&vhg, — written daifioot, Gv£evl*ig. 

Obs. 8. N is retained before g only in a few words ; as, 
TiQvvg, eX^uvg, ntcpavGcu. Before g followed by a vowel, v in gvv 
is changed into g ; thus, GVGGevco t GVGGiria t for gvvgevco, GWGiria. 
'Ev retains v before q, g, J. 

47. IV. OF THE LETTER 2. 

17. In the inflection of the passive voice, when 
a would stand between two consonants, it is re- 
jected; thus, 

XsXein-G&ctiv, tetqiB-g&ou, XeXty-G&ooGav. 
without c, IsXem-ftoov, TETQifi-ftai, XeXsy-ftrnGciv. 
by rule 2, XeXuy&cov, tetqicp&cu, XzXty&coGav. 
And so from rjyysXG&cu, iflysX&ui ; from mqwtvG&ov, aecpav- 
&ov, or n&yaG&ov. 

2 



14 



PUNCTUATION. 



Obs. 9. But when the first consonant is a ?-mute, it is re- 
jected, and 6 remains (Rule 8), thus : 

SGXEVaS-G&S, 7TS71EI&-G&S. 

become iaxevaG&s, nsnsuG&s. 

18. When both v and a r-mute together, are 
cast out before a, s preceding it is changed into 
tc, o into ov, and a doubtful vowel is lengthened ; 
but r) and co remain unchanged ; thus, 

Tvcpfi-evTai becomes ivcp&stGi ; rv\pavzGk becomes rvxpdai ; 

gttsvSgco G7Zsigco ; ylyavtai yiyaai ; 

Xsovtgi Xs'ovgi ; bslxvvvzGi fiuwwi. 

Obs. 10. In some instances, and perhaps always in the nomi- 
native, this alteration takes place when v only has been rejected ; 
thus, from svg, raXdvg, [islavg, come slg, taltig, fie'lag. 

19. When two consonants meet, which are not 
easily pronounced together, the pronunciation is 
sometimes relieved by transposing them, or by in- 
serting a third consonant between them ; thus, 

'inaQftov by metathesis (40-8th) snoaftov. 
avs'gog, by syncope avyog, by inserting d (40-3d) avooog. 

48. — Table of words to be corrected according 
to the foregoing rules : 

(Let the pupil always give the rule for the correction.) 



skins ov 


sd'7]X > 6 


(Xt&flCU 


Xeitzgco 


l}'j@GG) 


cpaai ex — 


qs'cpaxa 


GVVTzfo'xCO 


Gvvyovog 


S7ZQdy&T]V 


slays ovg 


d-sdsixa 


svfiaivco 


sv^e'eo 


ivBaXlq) 


sins 


ayGsi 


GVVtySQCO 


GVV^s'g) 


zvmovTGi 


naval 


7llsXG(Q 


ev\pv%og 


SvlsL7l(0 


TV7Z&8VTGI 


em 


acpaai 


ivxXivco 


GVVflSVCO 


7ZtV&G0{iat 


voaepi 


TTsidaco 
avvjcov 


xfXQW™ 
sxsig 


GVVQSCO 

Gvv\r t tyig 


h'oVTGl 
IGtaVTGl 


&d(pTCQ 


XelsTiftai 


Aft&ig 


7STV71G&CU 


XQvfttG) 



§ 1. PUNCTUATION. 

49. — The marks of punctuation in Greek are, the 
comma (,) ; the colon and semi-colon (*) ; the pe- 
riod (.) ; and mark of interrogation (;). 



§ 8. WORDS. 15 



PAET II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

50. — Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their deri- 
vations. 

§ 8. WORDS. 

51. — Words are certain articulate sounds used 
by common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1. In respect of Formation, words are either 
Primitive or Derivative / Simple or Compound. 

A Primitive word is one that comes from no other ; as, ncag, 
aya&og. 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from another word ; 
as, neafieia, dyad'orrig ; from noug, ayaftog. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word ; as, fidXl(o. 

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more 
simple words ; as, ixfidXlco, from ix and fidllm. 

2. In respect of Form, words are either De- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of 
form or termination, to express the different relations of gender, 
number, case, person, .<fcc, — in grammar, usually termed Acci- 
dents. 

Obs. 1. In every declinable word, there are at least two parts, 
the root or stem, and the termination. The root remains un- 
changed, except by euphony, in all the different forms which the 
word assumes. The termination is added to the root, and is 
varied, to produce these different forms. 

Obs. 2. The variation of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and par- 
ticiples, is called Declension ; that of verbs, Conjugation or Inflec- 
tion. 

An Indeclinable word is one that undergoes no change of ter- 
mination. 



16 PARTS OF SPEECH. — THE NOUN. § 9, 10. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words 
are divided into different classes, called Parts of 
Speech. 



§ 9. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

52. — The Parts of Speech in the Greek lan- 
guage are eight; viz., 

1. Noun or Substantive, Article, Adjective, 
Pronoun, Verb, declined. 

2. Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, unde- 
clined. 

Note. Any part of speech used simply as a word, and spoken of, is 
regarded as a noun ; thus, 'Eyo') is a dissyllable ; nox; is an adverb ; i. e. 
the word lyw, the word ttwc;, written in Greek to iyo'), rb nox;. — Thus 
used it is indeclinable. 

Obs. 1. The participle, regarded by some as a distinct part of 
speech, properly belongs to, and forms a part of, the verb. 

Obs. 2. In Greek, the interjections are considered, by most 
Grammarians, as adverbs. 



§ 10. THE NOUN. 

53. — A Noun is the name of any person, place, 
or thing. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

1. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual only; as, "O/urjQog, ^A&r\vai', Homer \ 
Athens. 

Among these may be included, 

1st. Patronymics, or those which express one's parentage, or 
family ; as, IlQiafiidqg, the son of Priam. 

2d. Gentile, or Patriot, which denote one's country ; as, 
l4d-i]vaiog, an Athenian. 

2. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort ; as, ccvjJq, a man ; olxog, 
a house ; /SifiXog, a booh 



§11. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 17 

54. — Under this class may be ranged, 

1st. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, wMch signify 
many in the singular number; as, Xaog, people. 

2d. Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities ; as, aya&oryg, 
aoodness. 

3d. Diminutives, or nouns which express a diminution in the 
signification of the nouns from which they are formed ; as, nai- 
diov, a little boy ; from ncdg. 

4th. Amplificative nouns, or those which denote an increase 
in the signification of the nouns from which they are formed ; 
as, xeydXcov, a person who has a large head ; from xscpdln. 

Note. A proper noun is the name of an individual only, and is used 
to distinguish that individual from all others of the same class. A 
common noun is the name of a* class of objects, and is equally applicable 
to all the individuals contained in that class. 



§ 11. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 

55. — To Greek nouns "belong Person, Gender, 
Number, and Case, 

1. PERSON. 

56. — Person, in grammar, is the distinction of 
nouns as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, 
the person or thing addressed, or the person or 
thing spoken of. Hence, 

57. — There are three persons, called the First, 
Second, and Third. 

A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the speaker or 
writer ; as, 'Ey<n IJavlog tyQccxpa, " I Paul have written it." 

A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or 
thing addressed; as, Maivij, TlavXe, "Paul, thou art beside thy- 
self." 

A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the person or 
thing spoken of; as, '0 Tlavlog i-opi], "Paul said." 

Note. Person has nothing to do either with the form of a noun, or 
with its meaning ; but simply with the manner in which it is used. 
Hence, the same noun may at one time be in the first person; at 
another, in the second ; and at another, in the third, as in the preced 
ing examples. 



18 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. §11. 

2. GENDER. 

58. — Gender means the distinction of nouns 
with regard to sex. There are three genders, 

Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

Of some nouns, the gender is determined by their significa- 
tion ; — of others, by their termination. 

The Masculine gender belongs to all nouns which denote the 
male sex. 

The Feminine gender belongs to all nouns which denote the 
female sex. 

The Neuter gender belongs to all nouns which are neither 
masculine nor feminine. Also to any term used simply as a 
word ; as, to nag, 52, Note. 

Nouns which denote both males and females are said to be 
of the Common gender, i. e. they are both masculine and femi- 
nine. 

The gender of nouns not determined by their signification, is 
usually to be ascertained by their termination, as will be noticed 
under each declension. 

Obs. 1. In Greek lexicons and grammars, the gender is indi- 
cated by the article ; viz., 6 indicates the masculine, ^, the femi- 
nine, and to, the neuter ; as, 6 avi'iQ, the man ; r t yvvij, the wo- 
man ; to £coo'v, the animal. 

3. NUMBER. 

59. — Number is that property of a noun by 
which it expresses one or more than one. 

Greek nouns have three numbers, the Singular, 
Dual, and Plural. The Singular denotes one; 
the Plural more than one. 

The Dual denotes two, and is most commonly used in speak- 
ing of those things which are produced, or are usually spoken of, 
in pairs. 

Obs. 2. In the oldest state of the Greek language, the dual is 
not used. It is not found in the JEolic dialect — in the New 
Testament — in the Septuagint, — nor in the Fathers. It is most 
common in the Attic dialect, in which, however, the plural is 
often used instead of it. 



§ 12. DECLENSION. 19 

4. CASE. 

60. — Case is the state or condition of a noun 
with respect to the other words in a sentence. 

61. — Greek nouns have five cases; viz., the 
Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and 
Vocative. 

1st The Nominative case, for the most part, denotes the 
name of an object simply, or as that of which something is 
affirmed. 

2d. The Genitive connects with the name of an object, the 
idea of separation, origin, possession. 

3d. The Dative represents the thing named as that to which 
something is added, or to or for which something is said or done. 

4 tli. The Accusative represents the thing named, as affected 
or acted upon by something else, and also, as the object to which 
something tends or relates. 

5 th. The Vocative is used when persons or things are ad- 
dressed. 

Obs. 3. There is no Ablative case in Greek, as in Latin. It3 
place is supplied by the genitive and dative. 

Obs. 4. All the cases except the nominative, are called ob- 
lique cases. 

§ 12. DECLENSION. 

62. — Declension is the mode of changing the 
terminations of nouns, adjectives, &c. 

63. — Words declined by cases, consist of two parts, — the Hoot 
and the Termination. 

64. — The Root is that part which remains unchanged by in- 
flection, except as required by the rules of euphony. It consists 
of all that precedes the termination in the genitive singular ; thus 
Gen. Jtfi-tjg, loy-ov, Idfinad-og. Roots, r*/*, loy, Xapnad. 

65. — The Termination is that part which, by its changes, 
indicates the different cases and numbers. 

66. — Nouns, — and also adjectives, pronouns, and participles, 
— are declined by^nnexing the terminations, or case-endings, to 
the root. Except the accusative in v, of the third declension, 
102. 



20 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



§13 



67. — In Greek, there are three declensions, cor- 
responding to the first, second, and third, in Latin. 
They are distinguished as follows : 

The first declension has the genitive in ag, or ng, from feminine 
nominatives ; or in ov from masculine nominatives in ag or ijg . 

The second has the genitive in ov, from og or ov. 

The third has the genitive in og whatever be the nominative. 
The difference between these declensions will be seen at on« 

view in the following : 



68.— 

First Declension. 

Norn, a, 7], ag, ng, 
Gen. ag, ng, ov, ov, 
Dat. a, n, a, % 
ay, nv, av, nv, 
a, n, a } rj. 



Table of Terminations, 



Ace. 
Voc. 



N. A. V. a, 
G. D. aiv. 



Nom. at, 
Gen. cov, 
Dat. aig, 
Ace. ag, 
Voc. au 



Second. 

og, neut. ov, 
ov, 

ov, 

e, neut. ov. 

Dual. 

CO, 

oiv. 

Plural. 
oi, neut. a, 
cov, 
oig, 

ovg, neut. a, 
oi, a. 



Third, 
v, J, q, g, \p, 



a, i, v, go 
og, 



a, Exc. as 102, & 69-2, 
like nom. Exc. as ] 04 



OLV. 

sg, neut. a, 

cov, 

at, 

ag, neut. a, 

eg, neut. a. 



§ 13. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
69. — GENERAL RULES. 

1. The vocative for the most part in the singu- 
lar, and always in the plural, is like the nomina- 
tive. 

2. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nomi- 
native, accusative, and vocative alike ; and these 
cases in the plural end always in a. 



§14. FIRST DECLENSION. 21 

3. The dative singular ends always in c, either 
annexed or written under. 

4. The nominative, accusative, and vocative 
dual are alike ; so also the genitive and dative. 



§ 14. FIRST DECLENSION. 

70. — The First Declension has four termina- 
tions of the nominative singular; two feminine, 
rj, a ; and two masculine, rig, ag. Of these, the 
principal termination is rj. 

ACCENTS. 

71.— Words in the first declension are accented 
according to the following — 

72. — SPECIAL RULES. 

1. The genitive plural, for the most part, has 
the circumflex on the final syllable. 

Exc. The exceptions are the feminine of adjectives and parti- 
ciples in og, not accented on the last syllable ; and the words 
XQifaqSy itsGicu, and aqivq, which have XQ^ arcov f iv&fictnr, aqsvcov. 

2. In the other cases, so far as the general rules 
permit, the accent always remains on the same 
syllable as in the nominative. 

3. When the accent in the nominative singular 
is on the termination, all genitives and datives 
have the circumflex on the final syllable. 

QUANTITY. 

73. — Nouns in a with the genitive in qg have a short, except 
in the nominative dual and accusative plural, which are always 
(ong. Nouns which have the genitive in ag, have a, long. To 
this there are a few exceptions. 



22 



FIKST DECLENSION. 



§15,16 



74. — Paradigm of Nouns in r\ : rtpj, honour. 



Sing. 
N. tifi-rj, 
G. tip-ijg, 

A. Tlfl-tjV, 



Dual. 

N. A. V. r^j-a, 
G. D. zip-aw. 



Plural. 
N. zifi-ai, 
G. niA-wv, 
D. tifi-aig, 

A. 1l\JL-dg, 

V. np-ai. 



75.— § 15. SPECIAL RULES FOR FEMININE NOUN?. 

1. Nouns in a have the accusative singular io 
av. 

2. Nouns in # pure (4-4), and qu> retain a in 
all the cases of the singular. 

Obs. To these may be added a few words ending in 8a, &a, 
and a, circumflex, contracted for da ; and a very few in Xa and 
jwcc. Such words have a always long ; as, (iHXoprjXa, Gen. cM^jJ- 
Xag, &c. 

76. — EXAMPLES. 



N. yiXi-a, friendship. 
G. ytli-ag, 
D. (piXt-ct, 
A. (piXi-av, 
V. qiiXi-a. 

Note. In the dual and plural, all nouns of this declensioi are de- 
clined like To/*-?/. 



N. JVZbvcy-a, a muse. 
G. Mow-t^g, 
D. Mow-ri, 
A. Movo'-cm', 
V. Mova-a. 



N. ?W<o-a, 
G. imz'o-ai,, 
D. ruiEQ-a, 

A. TM8Q-ai , 

V. ?jy,tQ-a. 



77. — gi6. SPECIAL RULES FOR MASCULINE ISOUNS. 

1. Nouns in ^g and a^ have the genitive in ov • 
and lose g in the vocative. 

Obs. 1. Some nouns in ag have the genitive in ov cr a ; as, 
rtatQaTiXoi&g, gen. naroanXoiov, or najQanXoia, a parricide 
Some have a only ; as, Qcopag, gen. Qcofia, Thomas. 

2. Nouns in r^ have « in the vocative ; those 
in arrjg have either tj or a ; as, 

Tlovritrig, voc. novqtd ; Xrjatr^j voc. A^or// or Xijajd. 



§17. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



23 



Obs. 2. Nouns denoting a people or natioi ; as, IltQaTjg, a 
Persian; compounds in nr\g ; derivatives from ptTooj, ttojXm, 
and tqi(}g} ; also Xdyvrjg, Msvaixfiqg, and nvQCu'xtiyg, have the 
vocative in a. 

3. In the other cases, masculine nouns are de- 
clined like the feminine, to which their termina 
tions correspond. 

78. — EXAMPLES. 
Singular. 



1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Atrides. 


Citizen. 


Youth. 


Pythagoras. 


N. Jtroeid-tjg, 


nolii-fjg, 


vsari-ag r 


TIvftayoQ-ag, 


G. AtQElS-OVy 


noXlt-ov, 


veavi-ov, 


nv&ayoQ-ov, 


D. JtzQsid-rj, 


TToXiz-rj, 


veavi'-K, 


IIv&ayoQ-a, 


A. ^TQSt8-7]V f 


fzoh'r-jjv, 


veavi-av, 


TIv&uyoQ-av, 


V. Azozi8-q. 


noXlx-a. 


vtavl-ct. 


TIv&ayoQ-a. 



The dual and plural of masculine nouns are the same as the 
dual and plural of rip,}/. 

Obs. Since the termination r^g, belongs also to the third de- 
clension, it may be observed, that to the first pertain the nouns 
in idijg or adqg ; as, Oovxididqg, JtkAifiiddijg ; — the names of na- 
tions; as, £ixehco7i]g ; — nouns in z^s, derived from verbs; as, 
noiqztjg from Tzoieco ; — compounds from ovovpcu, I buy ; (iezqg), 
/measure; zqi'^cq, I rub, wear, train ; ncoXm, I sell ; and from 
words of this declension ; e. g. 'OXvfimovuqg, from via?] ; dgxs- 
dixqg, from dixy. 



§ 17. DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

7 9. — Besides the regular terminations exhibited in the para- 
digms, many words are found in different cases declined accord- 
ing to some of the peculiar dialects. In the tables of termina- 
tions, A. denotes Attic, I. Ionic, D. Doric, M. jEolic : but the 
distinctions are not strictly observed in every instance, — the same 
peculiarities sometimes occurring in two, and sometimes in three 
dialects. The following words are exhibited as examples, but it 
is not to be inferred that each part of them will actually be found 
in the Greek authors. 



24: 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



§18, 



Norn. 
tbfi-i] D. a, 
^ora-a ) j . 
q> vlla ) 
IIv&ayoQ-aq 

Ttnor-tfi 



Norn. 



j D. a?. V 
|^E.ct. ) 



Singular. 

Gen. 

-%, D. dq. 



-aq, 



D. a?. 
I. tjq. 



( L fw. 
7, -j D. a. 
( ^fi. ao. 



Dat 




-fj,D. 


a. 


-r>?, 1>- 


a. 


-a, I. 


n- 


-a, I. 


n- 


^,D. 


a. 



ti[i-ai 



Gen. 

I. ECOV. 

D. av, & 

dcov. 

M. dcov. 



Ace. 
-tiv, D. ar. 

-av, L 7\v. 

L iyv 






Voc. 
-?J, D. a. 

-a, I. ^. 

j A. a« 

■a, t ^/ 

' A. 17? 



Plural. 
Dat. 

-CU£, I. 5?, & 

D. & A. ar^t. 



Ace. 



■ag, 



( I. eaff. 
( M. alg. 



Voc. 



-at. 



Thus, [iijrietijg, M. (iijtwea, a wise person ; TI?jXsidov, I. 77iy- 
Xeidsco, of P elides ; Aiveiov, M. Aivelao, of uEneas ; G?]^aig t 
I. Qfifirjg, or Oqfirjai, in Thebes ; olod, I. bXoq, pernicious ; %QV' 
am, I. xqvairi, golden. For the genitive and dative in got or cpw, 
see §31. 



§18. CONTRACTIONS. 

80. — In a concourse of vowels, if two syllables 
are converted into one, it is called a Contraction. 
Of contractions there are two kinds : 

1. A contraction without a change of vowels is 
called Synceresis ; as, resist', by synseresis, TfJ%€i. 

2. A contraction with sl change of vowels is 

called Crasis / as, yta, yfj ; — cpiXss, cpiXsc ; — voov, 

vovv ; — oortov, oGrovv, 

Obs. If the first of the concurrent vowels has an acute accent, 
it is changed into a circumflex on the contracted syllable. If 
the first concurrent vowel has not an accent, the contracted sylla 
ble has not the circumflex, 28, 29. 

3. In the rules for contractions generally, let it be remembered 
that 

the two short vowels, s, o, 

have their own long vowels, v, go, 
and their own diphthongs, si, ov. 
Not*. A contraction is often made, but not always. 



§19,20. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



25 



§ 19. CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

81. — In the first declension, no contraction takes place unless 
the first of the concurrent vowels is e, o, or a short, and the nomi- 
native contracted is then declined regularly. 

RULES. 

1. Ea not after g is changed into r] ; as, 

ysa f earth, yrj, G. yrjg, D. yr}, &c. like zifirj. 
XQvasa, golden, XQ m V> G". xqvgjiq, D. XQ V( *V> & c - 
Eopeag, Mercury, 'Egpijg, G. 'EgfAOv, D. 'Egpfj, &c. 

2. In Qea and other concurrent vowels, strike 
out the first ; as, 

noQtyvoia, purple, Ttogcpvga, G. 7rogcpvgag y D. nogyvga, <fec. 

anion, simple, knXH], G. anlijg, <fec. 

Ji&rpaa, Minerva, u%&t]va, G. A&nvag, D. Ad-ijva, <kc, 75. 



Obs. 



JindX&ng, Apelles, A7Te)J.ijg t G. JfrreAAov, D. .J^7£XA?J, &c. 



aeh]v7j, the moon. 
GoquGTijg, a sophist. 
TtiXeia, a dove, 
sjivsiag, jEneas. 
yeyvga, a bridge. 
Iv66a> frenzy. 
M&aoiGTijg, a harper 
Jivot^ayooag, Anax- 
agoras. 



82. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 

yXmaaciy the tongue, 
dyogd, the forum. 
Te%viTrjg, an artist. 
r t 5ovrj, pleasure, 
ycovia, an angle, 
fita, force, 
avqa, a breeze, 
avia, sadness. 
dycovKJttjg, a wrestler, 



eiq?]vtj, peace, 
aoqiia, wisdom, 
(lelcuva, black. 
rdXcuva, miserable, 
dixn, justice. 
fiovXrj, counsel. 
[taxaiQCtj a sword, 
cpoovvfiariagj high- 
minded. 



Note. The learner should decline some of the words in this table ac- 
cording to the different dialects : and, in like manner, in the second and 
third declensions, according to their dialects. 



§20. SECOND DECLENSION. 

83. — The second declension has two termina- 
tions of the nominative singular ; og and ov ; ov 
is always neuter, og never. 



26 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§20. 



ACCENTS. 



84. — Words in the second declension are ac- 
cented according to the following — 



SPECIAL RULES. 



1. As far as the general rules permit (13, &c.) 
the accent remains on the same syllable in the ob- 
lique cases, as in the nominative. To this rule the 
genitive plural is not an exception, as in the first 
declension. 

Exc. I. The Attic forms in cog and cov are accented as in the 
common form : i. e. the final long syllable permits the accent to 
remain on the antepenult. See 88, avcoyscov. 

2. When the accent, in the nominative singular, 
is on the final syllable, all genitives and datives 
have the circumflex on the final syllable. 

Exc. 2. Except the genitive singular of nouns in cog ; as, vmg, 
gen. rem. 

85.- 



-EXAMPLES. 



1. Paradigm of the Masculine and Feminine Nouns in og\ 

6 Xoyog, the speech. 

Dual. 



Singular. 
N. loy-og, 
G. X6y-0Vy 
D. Xoy-qi, 
A. Xoy-ovj 
V. Xoy-s. 



N. A. V. Xoy-co, 
G. D. Xoy-oiv. 



Plural. 
K l6y-ot f 
G. Xoy-covy 
D. loy-otg, 
A. loy-ovg, 
V. Xoy-oi. 



In the same manner also are declined nouns in ov, observing 
the second general rule (69-2) ; thus, 

2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns in ov ; [ietqov, a measure, 



Singular. 
N. fiezQ-ov, 

G. {JL8ZQ-OV, 

D. peto-q), 
A. pero-ov, 

V. UETQ-OV. 



Dual. 

N. A. V. flETQ-CO, 

G. D. (ieto-oii>. 



Plural. 
N. peto-a, 

G. flSTQ-COV, 

D. [iszQ-oig, 
A. [ieTQ-a, 



21. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



86.— §21. DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 



Xay-og, A. c6g. 



Gen. 
~ov, A. eo, 
I. & D. om>. 



Singular. 



Ace. 



Voc. 
■«, A. 6g & cog. 



Plural. 
Nom. Dat. Ace. Voc. 

Xay-ol, A. cp. -oig, A. ope, -oi/£, A. cog. -ot, A. ep. 

I. & D. olai. D. cog, & 6g. 

M. oig. 

87. — Neuter nouns in the Attic dialect have the same termi- 
nations with nouns in og', except that v is substituted for g. 

Thus it will appear that the Attic form, in which og is changed 
into cog, ov into cov, and oi into op, is the principal variation in 
this declension. Let it be observed, however, that a long, and n, 
before og, are changed into s before cog ; as, Xaog, Attic Xscog. a 
short remains unchanged; as, ta-og, ra-cog, or it is contracted 
with the o into cog ; as, ayr t oaog, aytjocog. For the genitive and 
dative in cpi or cfiv y see § 31. 



8. EXAMPLES OF THE 


ATTIC DECLENSION 

Singular. 


OF NOUNS IN Og. 


Xaycog for Xayog. 


VEcog for mo?, aj'ofyfojj' for a^co^o?. 


a hare. 


a temple. 


a building. 


N. Xaycog, 


vecog, 


avcoyEcov, 


G. Xayco, 


VECO, 


avcoyEco, 


D. Xaycp, 


VECp, 


avcoyECp, 


A. Xayco, or cov, 


vEco, or VECOV, 


avcoyEcov, 


V. Xaycog, or og. 


vEcog, or vaog. 
Dual. 


avcoyEcov. 


N. A. V. Xayco, 


VECO, 


avcoyEco, 


G. D. Xaycpv. 


vsepv. 
Plural. 


dveoysepv. 


N. V. Xayco, 
G. Xaycov, 


VECp, 
VECOV, 


avcoyEco, 
avcoyEcov, 


D. Xayqig, 
A. Ac^ra?. 


VECpg, 
VEcog. 


dvcoyECpg, 
avcoyEco. 



Obs. The Attics did not decline all nouns in og in this man 
ner, but only a very few. The same forms occur also in the Ionic 



23 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§22. 



and Doric writers. After this form, the Attics often declined 
nouns which otherwise belong to the third declension ; as, Mivca, 
Ace. for Mcvcoa, from Mivcog, G. Mivwog ; yslcov, Ace. for yeXa)* 
ta f from yeXcog, yeXcotog. 



§ 22. CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

89. — In the second declension contractions are 
seldom used, and never, unless the first of the con- 
current vowels is short. 



RULES. 

short vowels 



concurring are 



Rule I. Two 
changed into ov. 

Except ss in the vocative singular, never contracted. 

Rule II. A short vowel before a diphthong, 
or before a vowel not short, is rejected. 







90. EXAMPLES. 








6 voog, contracted vovg, the mind. 






Singular. 


Dual. Plural. 




N. 


Rule 1 vb-og vovg 


N. A. V. 


N. 2 vb-oi 


VOL 


G. 


2 vo-ov vov 


2 vb-ca vdi 


G. 2 VO-03V 


vmv 


D. 


2 vb-cp vo) 


G. D. 


D. 2 vb-oig 


voig 


A. 


1 vo-ov vovv 


2 vb-oiv voiv 


A. 2 vb-ovg 


vovg 


V. 


1 vb-s vov 




V. 2 vb-oi 


rot 




TO OGTbOV, 


contracted dorovv, the bone. 






Singular. 


Dual. Plural. 




N. 


OGTS-OV OGtOVV 


N. A. V. m 


N. oGzt-a 


bard 


G. 


OGtS-OV OGTOV 


bari-co ogtcq 


G. OGTt-OW 


OGTOOV 


D. 


OGZe-Cp OGtGJ 


, G - I) ; 


D. oGzi-oig 


OGtoTg 


A. 


bari-ov ogzovv 


OGti-OlV OGtOlV. 


A. oGti-a 


bata 


V. 


bari-ov oazovv 






V. oGze'-a 


OGxa 



Decline and contract in the same manner, nlbog, navigation ; 
Qoog, a stream ; yybog, down ; adslcptoebg, a nephew. 



§23. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



29 



91. WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 



ayyeXog, a messenger, 
atzog, an eagle, 
d&log, a combat. 
a&Xov, a prize, 
aiinelog, a vine, 
aoyvgog, silver. 



aqyvQiov, silver. 
8(jyov, work, 
fi^lov, an apple, 
vozog, the south wind, 
olxog, a house. 
Tzcudiov, a child. 



qo8ov, a rose 
GidijQog, iron. 
G7Qatog t an army. 
yoQiioVf a burden. 
%alx6g, copper. 
XQvaog, gold. 



§ 23. THIRD DECLENSION. 

. 92. — The third declension has seven termina- 
tions of the nominative singular, a> c, v, co y — v, q, 
g : it has all genders, and increases the noun by 
one syllable in the oblique cases. 

Note. Nouns in J and i/> are considered as ending in g (8-6). 

93. — The root, seldom unchanged in the nomi- 
native, is always found in the genitive singular by 
omitting og (64). 

The oblique cases, for the most part, are formed 
by adding the terminations (68) to the root. 

ACCENTS. 

94. — Words in the third declension are accent- 
ed according to the following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. The accent, in the oblique cases, remains on 
the accented syllable of the nominative, as far as 
the general rules permit, 13 — 17. 

Exc. 1. But avrjQ, oou'iq, tzcit/jq, and owt/jq, in the vocative, 
throw the accent back on the penult; as, avto, datn, &c. See 
104, Exc. 

Exc. 2. When the genitive singular ends in oig instead of og 
(98-4), there is no change of accent, and the genitive plural is 
accented as the genitive singular ; as, nohg, Tzolecog, nolecov. 

2. Words of one syllable in the nominative sin- 
gular, accent the final syllable of the genitive and 



80 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



23. 



dative in all numbers ; and in these, the final sylla- 
ble long has the circumflex. So also yvvri, xvoov, 
and syncopated substantives in r^o, 99-4. 



JZxc. 3. Except dag, a torch ; dftojg, a slave ; &c6g, a jackal ; 
xgag, xoazog, the head ; ovg, the ear ; nalg, a child; <j{jg, a 
moth ; Tqoyg, a Trojan ; (popg, a burning ; qxxig, light ; which in 
the genitive plural, and in the genitive and dative dual, have the 
acute accent on the first syllable. 

Except also participles of one syllable ; as, dovg, Sovzog, &c. ; 
and the dual and plural of nag, viz. : navtoiv, narrow, ndot. 

3. The vocative of nouns in avg, tvg, ovg, co' y 
and cog, has the circumflex on the final syllable ; 
as, yoccv, j3a6cXeu, &c. 

95. — Nouns in the third declension are declined 
as follows : 

1. Paradigm of Masculine and Feminine Nouns ; 6 dyg, the 

beast. 



Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. &71Q, f 


i 


N. &r]Q-eg, 


G. d-qo-og, 


N. A. V. friJQ-s, 


G. ftijo-mvy 


D. &7JQ-1, 




D. \tt]Q-Ol, 


A. d-tjo-a. 


G. D. &t]Q'OlV. 


A! &?iQ-ag, 


V. <% 




V. d-fjQ-sg. 



Neuter nouns are declined in the same manner, 
observing the 2d general rule, 69-2. 

2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns ; ffifia, a tribunal. 



Singular. 
N. §tma, 
G. $r\\ia-rog, 
D. firjfia-n, 
A. @rj(A,a, 
V. fiijfia. 



Dual. 
N. A. V. pf;[ia-Te, 
G. D. ^rjiia-toiv. 



Plural. 
N". @?j[ia-za, 
G. fir^id-Tcov, 
D. pi;ua*Gi, 44-8. 
A. fiijpa-za, 
V. fitifia-ta. 



Note. In the declension of nonns which take roc, Soq, or #oc, in the 
genitive, the Eule 44-8 must be particularly attended to in the dative 
plural. 



§24,25. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



N. 6 naidv, a pcean, 

to (itfo, honey, 

6 [i?{V, a moth, 

6 nvo, fire, 

6 Sevoqxnv, Xenophon, 

to ocSfia, the body, 



§ 24. FORMING THE GENITIVE. 

96. — GENERAL RULES. 

1. If the noun does not end in g, add og, or 
rog to the nominative ; as, 

G. naidv-og Root naiav 

lltll-TOg fltltT 

[lljV-6g fli/V 

7lVQ-6g 7TVQ 

EzVOtyWV-TOQ !Ei:V0($(OVT 

OOJflU-TOg GCOflUZ 

2. If the noun ends in g, reject g, and add og, 
rog, dog, or &og ; as, 

N. 6 ijoag, a hero, reject g ?jqo) G. ?jQoo-og Root qow 
6 Xtytjg, a caldron, Xefin Xt^ij-Tog XeftnT 

w Xa\i7iag, a torch, Xafina Xafi7zd-dog XeLfinad 

o, i\ ogvig, a bird, oqvi oon-&og 6gn& 

6 avu%, a ruler, dvax urax-Tog dvaxT 

i] Xaihtip, a storm, laiXan Xal).an-og Xcalan 

Whether og, Tog, dog, or &og, is to be added, can be learned 
only by practice and consulting the dictionary. 

97. — Exception. But if the noun ends in og, 
insert * before it. All these are neuter ; as, 
N. TeTxog, a wall, G. Tefy-e-og Root TEtys 

[MQog, apart, ptg-e-og pegs 

ogog, a mountain, og-e-og ogs 



§ 25. THE PENULT. 

98. — If the final syllable of the nominative con- 
tain a long vowel or diphthong, it is commonly 
shortened in the root by the following — 

RULES. 

1. A diphthong casts away its subjunctive vow- 
el; as, 



32 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§25. 



G. pacifo'-wg, 
fio-og, 
Doric, va-bg, 



Root fiaoiXe. 

§0. 

va. 



N. 6 ficcGiXsvg, the king, 
6 §ovg, the ox, 

y vavg, the ship, 

2. A long vowel is changed into its own short 
as, 

N. 6 noiprjv, the shepherd, G. noi\i(v-og, Root, noifiev. 

Anzm, Latona, Arjxo-og, Aqzo. 

o xavcov, the rule, xavov-og, xavov. 

o Sodxcw, the dragon, doaxov-rog, 8oaxovT. 

ij aidojg, modesty, al86-og, aldo. 

T8Tvcpco<g, having struck, retvcpo-zog, tsrvcpot. 

3. i and i/, whether long or short, are changed 
into s ; as, 

N. h dvvauiQi the power, G. dwdpe-ag, Root, dvvafis. 

the flock, TMos-og, tkos. 



n dvvufiig, 

to 7Z0JV, 



THE GENITIVE IN 0)£. 

4. Nouns in eg and vg, when they change c and 
v into s, and likewise nouns in evg, take the Attic 
cog instead of og in the genitive ; as, 

N. 6 vofisvg, the shepherd, G. vo^s-cog, Root, vofie. 
?] nokig, the city, noke-mg, tzoXe. 



o mftvg, 



the elbow. 



7tTjXS-(Og, 



nn'/s. 



99. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Neuters in i and v have the genitive in eog; as, actv, G. 
daiEog. The Ionic and Doric writers retain i in the oblique 
cases of nouns in ig and i ; as, nofog, G. nohog, D. noku. But 
even in these, the dative is usually contracted into si ; as, noku, 
noku. Also nouns in ig sometimes have the Attic eq>v instead 
of eoiv, in the genitive and dative dual. 

2. All Greek words ending in g, which take v in the genitive, 
appear to have originally ended in vg, and the v at length was 
dropped for the sake of euphony; 46-16. But to maintain the 
former quantity of the nominative, the doubtful vowel was made 
long, and the short vowels were changed into their own diph- 
thongs ; thus, the original terminations avg, ivg, vvg, svg, ovg, 

were changed into tig, Ig, vg, etg, ovg. 
But the oblique cases, regularly formed from the original nomi- 
native, remain unchanged ; as in the following examples : 



§26. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



33 



Nom. originally. 



Gen. 



Root. 



yiyag^ 
8sX<pfg t 


yiyavg, 
deXtfivg, 


yiyav-Tog, 
deXqw-og, 


yiyavr. 
deXcpiv. 


cpOQxvg, 

xzeig, 

odovg, 


qjoqxvvg, 

xrsvg, 

odovg, 


(pooxvv-og, 

X7EV-6g, 

odov-rog, 


QpOQXVV. 
XTZV. 

odovt. 



3. Instead of rejecting v before g in the nominative, sometimes 
the g was dropped and the v retained; and hence the double 
forms of the nominative which sometimes occur: as, deXcpig or 
deXqiiv ; cpogxvg or qogxvv. 

4. Certain nouns in ttjq, having tSQog in the genitive, are con- 
tracted by syncope in the genitive and dative singular, and in the 
dative plural (106-R. 2), and throw the accent in the genitive 
and dative singular on the final syllable (94-2) ; as, 

nuTi'iQ, a father, narioog, Ttargog. 

Tzarsgi, TtaxQi. 

pforiQ, a mother, firjrtQog, (Aqzoog. 
So also, dvijQ, a man, dvsgog, uvdoog. (47-19.) 

Note. The nouns thus contracted are naryo, a father ; fi^r^Q, a mo- 
ther ; d-vydxtiQ, a daughter ; yaari^Q, the belli/ ; ^Tj/^-rjrrj^, Ceres ; and 
avriQ, a man. This last rejects e in all the cases and numbers except 
the vocative singular. 



§26. THE GENITIVE OF ADJECTIVES. 

100. — Adjectives of the third declension form the genitive by 
the same rules as substantives ; but some form it from the mas- 
culine, and others from the neuter gender; and the genitive 
formed from either gender, is also the genitive of the other. The 
gender from which the genitive is formed may be ascertained by 
the following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Adjectives in ig and ovg, form the genitive 
from the nominative masculine ; as, 

N. ylxlfialof,' \ Gen# of botn > ydoTzdroidog, Root, yXoTrarotd. 

i fi£ ' } " " *«** " *■<* 

2. Adjectives not in eg or ovg, form the genitive 
from the nominative neuter ; as, 



34 THIRD DECLENSION. §27. 

Masc. Neut. Gen. of both. Root 

zsqijv, zt'oev, tender, vsoev-og, vsqev. 

akiftlig, ak-rftig, true, dlrjd't-og, dXrj&£. 

fxiXag, [isXav, black, [isXar-og, [AtXav. 

Xaoizig, X a Qi £V > graceful, %aQiev-Tog, %aQitvz 

Obs. 1 . This rule applies universally to participles of the third 

declension, and these have their genitive always in tog ; as, 

N. Masc. N. Neut. Gen. of both. Root. 

crag, (jtdv, arav-Tog, azavr. 

didovg, diSov, didov-tog, 8i8ovz. 

rvTzcov, zvnbv, rvnov-tog, ivnovr. 

rvcp&ng, tvcpxrsv, tvqi&sv-rog, Tvqj&evT. 

For the declension of adjectives and participles, see §§ 46, 47 



§ 27. THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

101. — The Accusative singular of masculine and 
feminine nouns commonly ends in a. But, 

102.— SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. The genitive in og pure, from eg, vg, 
avg, and ovg, changes g of the nominative into v ; 

Root. 
bqn. 

@OTQV. 

va. 

Likewise Xdag and xccgtg have v ; as, 

Nom. Gen. Ace. Root. 

Xdag, a stone, Xda-og, Xdav, Xaa. 

%doig, favour, ^doi-Tog, X^Qir, X a Q lTm 

Exc. But Jig, Ai-og, Jupiter, has Jia ; and Xdoig, the name 
of one of the Graces, has Xdoiva; and %qovg, the skin, has XQoa 
seldom xqovv. 

Rule 2. Words in vg, -tog, and compounds of 
%ovg, afoot, have aory; as, 



thus, 






Nom. 


Gen. 


Ace. 


ocfig, 
fiozQvg, 
vavg, 
fiovg, 


a serpent, oyi-og, 
a bunch of grapes, fiozgv-og, 
a ship, Doric, va-6g, 
an ox, §o-6g, 


oyw, 
$btqvv, 
vavv, 
§ovv, 



§28. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



35 



Nora. 



Gen. 



Ace. 



Root. 



coxvg, 


c6y.t-og, 


coyJ-a, or coxw, 


OJX£. 


diaovg. 


dino-dog, 


dino-da, or dinovv, 


Smod. 



Rule 3. Words in eg and vg not accented on 
the last syllable, with the genitive in og not pure, 
have a or v; as, 

Nom. Gen. Ace. Root. 

£Qtg y toi-dog, tot-da, or snw, ioid. 

y.OQvg y xoov-&og, xoQV-da, or xoqvv, xoqv&. 
So also, xXsig, xXei-dog, xXh-Su, or xXtiv, xXstd. 

Obs. Such words, in prose, have almost always v, seldom «; 
but in poetry, commonly a, seldom v. 



§£8. THE VOCATIVE SINGULAR. 

103. — The vocative singular is for the most part 
like the nominative. But, 

104. — SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. A short vowel in the genitive, from a 
long vowel of the nominative, remains short in the 



as 



Voc. 



Root. 



vocative ; 

Nom. Gen. 

prjTrjQ, a mother, {irjtEQ-og, ^fj^eg, pyreo. 

"E/.tcoq, Hector, "Exrog-og, "Extoq, 'Extoq. 

Exc. But nouns accented on the last syllable, have the voca- 
tive long;' as, 7zoi[i>jv, Gen. notfisv-og, Voc. noipTp] except na- 
r//o, dvijo, and dafjQ, which have the vocative narsQ, avto, and 
Sato, with the accent thrown back. 

AnoXXtov, IIoGtidow, and ocot/jo, with the long vowel in the 
genitive, have the final vowel short in the vocative, and the ac- 
cent thrown back ; thus, XnoXXov, Tloaeidov, crnieo. 

Rule 2. Nouns in ig, vg, and tvg, reject g in the 
vocative; as, 

oq>ig, V. oqpt; — fiorovg, V. fiozov; — fiaotXevg, V. ftaciXev. 
Likewise, Tialg, yqavg, and povg ; Voc nuX, ygav, §qv. 







36 THIRD DECLENSION. §29. 

Kule 3. Feminmes in cog and co make the voca- 
tive in ol ; as, 

aldcog, V. aidoT; JZaacpcQ, V. JZatzcpoT. 

Rule 4. Nouns in dg> -avrog (99-2), have the 
vocative in av ; those in ug, -avrog have the voca- 
tive in sv ; as, 

Nom. Gen. Voc. Root. 

A'ltig, Ajax, Aiav-rog, Alav, A'lavx. 

JZifioeig, Sirnois, Zi^ioev-tog, £ip6sv, JZipoevr. 

Note. In proper' names, however, the poets often reject v, as, Aia 
for AXav. 

Obs. yvvr\ has yvvai in the vocative ; and aval;, in addressing 
the deity, has ava ; otherwise aval*. 

Rule 5. In adjectives, the vocative masculine 
is like the nominative neuter ; as, 



N". Masc. 


N. Neut. 


V. Masc. 


alrj'&fjg, 


aXif&eg, 


ahfiig. 


iXs/jflOJV, 


ilsqftov, 


iXstjflOV. 


dirrovg, 


dlTTOVV, 


blTlOVV. 


[xslag, 


[is'lav, 


\iiXav. . 


yaQiug, 


yaQiev, 


Xagiev, also %agi£ig. 



Note. This rule does not app]y to participles. These follow the gen- 
eral rule ; as, N. & V. tv7Zto)v, xunrovaa, rvnrov. 



§ 29. THE DATIVE PLURAL. 

105. — The dative plural is formed by adding at 
to the root. Besides the changes required by the 
rules of Euphony (44-8), other changes are to be 
noticed under the following — 

106. — special eules. 

Rule 1. Nouns in svg, avg, and ovq> insert v 
before ac in the dative plural ; as, 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



37 



§29. 

N. 6 (laGilEvg, the king, G. ftacih'-cog, D. PI. fictGiXsv gu 
ri vavg, the ship, va-6g> Doric. vav-Gi. 

rj fiovg, the cow, §o-6g, @ov-gi. 

Exc. But rtovg, a foot, no-dog, has tzogi. 

Kule 2. Nouns in ttjo, -tsqos, after a syncope, 
have aai (99-4) ; as, 

natriQ, G. nariq-og, (narEOGt) by syncope, narqaai 
So avfiQ, avEQ-og, \clveqgi) avbqaai. 

Exc. But yaarijQ, G. yaat&o-og, has sometimes yaazijoai. 

107. — ^Examples of the preceding Hides. 

In the following examples, note the difference between them and 
the example &jq, ftrj^oq, 95-1, and give the rule for the difference. 









Singular. 






6, pasturer. 


r), cow. 


6, a divinity. 


o, lion. 


6, shepherd 


N. 


vofievg 


fiovg * 


dalficov 


Xs'cov 


noijir.v 


G. 


v ops- cog 


po-og 


dai'pov-og 


Xsovr-og 


7l0ljlEV-0g 


D. 


VO[lE-l 


po-t 


daifiov-i 


Xiovt-t 


7l0l\lEV-l 


A. 


VO\IE-OL 


fiovv 


daifiov-cc 


Xeovz-cc 


szoifiEv-a 


V. 


VO(A£V 


§ov 


daipov 
Dual. 


Xeov 


7I0l[l)'iV 


N.A.V. 


VOfls'-E 


§6-8 


datfiov-8 


Xeovt-e 


TTOlflEV-E 


G.D. 


V0[IE-01V 


fio-otv 


daifiov-oiv 
Plural. 


Xeovt-oiv 


7t0l\JLEV-0lV 


N. 


vofis-eg 


@6-eg 


daifiov-sg 


XsovT-sg 


noi\iiv-Eg 


G. 


vofii-cov 


fio-aiv 


daipov-cov 


Xeovt-cov 


TtOtfAEV-OJV 


D. 


VO\lEV-Gl 


fiov-61 


8aifio-Gi 


Xeov-gi 


7t0l\lE-Gl 


A. 


vofie-ag 


fio-ag 


daipov-ag 


Xiovt-ag 


noi\iEv-ag 


, v. 


voue'-eg 


fio-sg 


daipov-sg 


Xiovt-sg 


7101}IEV-Eg 








Singular. 






i 


i city. 


7], SOW. 


6, swift* 


rj, strife. 


6, father. 


N. 


noXig 


Gvg 


coxvg 


Epig 


navqQ 


G. 


jzoXe-cog 


Gv-6g 


coM-og 


EQid-og 


naro-og 


D. 


tzoXe-1' 


GV-t 


coxz'-i 


Epid-i. 


naro-i 


A. 


nbXiv 


GVV 


00Xe-tt, -(OXVV SQLV, 6Ql8' 


a 7zazEQ~a 


V. 


nbXi 


GV 


caxv 


SQl 


TlOLtEQ 



r 



38 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



30. 



Dual. 



.A.V. 


7t6Xs-8 


(TVS 


COX8-8 


8Qi8-s 


71UZ8Q-S 


G.D. 


aoXe-oiv 


av-oiv 


mts'-oiv 
Plural. 


ioid-ow 


TtaTHQ-OW 


N. 


nols-eg 


Gv-eg 


osxs'-eg 


8Qi8-sg 


Trazio-sg 


G. 


nols-cov 


gv-oHv 


(0X8- mv 


ioid-cov 


7tat8Q-(x)V 


D. 


tioXs-gi 


gv-gi 


(OX8-GI 


8QI-GI 


1 TiatQ-a-Gi 


A. 


noXe-ag 


Gv-ag 


coxs'-ag 


8Qid~ag 


7iat8Q-ag 


V. 


TioXe-eg 


Gv-sg 


(6x8-eg 


8gi8-eg 


7iat8Q-sg 



§ 30. DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

108. — From the variety of terminations in nouns of this de- 
clension, it is impossible to exhibit them in one concise table. 
But the general principles are — The nominative and vocative At- 
tic are alike, — The Attic genitive is in scog, instead of sog and 
tog, — The Ionic has v in the penult, through the oblique cases, 
instead of e and a ; and with the poets makes sgi or sggi instead 
of Gh in the dative plural. 



Nom. 

M 

o<f>-t><;. 
vuvq. 

ald-o)q. 



Nom. 
;X-evq. ) 
EL jfc. > 
-vq. ) 



Gen. 



Singular. 

Dat. 



(I- w) ) 

-£oq, < D. & >A. mq. h 

(Mtvq.) ) 



-ioq, 
-aoq, 

-6oq, 



A. io)q. 
I. t]6q <! 

M.b)q. 



-i'c, I. ij'i. 

-u. 
-ail. Tji. 



Ace. 
-ia. ) 

, , c Li i a 

-vv, ia. ) 

-w. 

-avv, I.7JW, r\a, 

, { I. ovv. 
-oa, is?-- 



Plural. 



Nom. and Yoc. 

( A. p. 
fiaffd-itq. < or r\q. 

( I. r\*%. 
V-aiq, L rjiq. 



Gen. 
-£o)v, I. rjoiv. 
-awr, I. ijoiv. 



Dat. 




Yoc. 
-eii, A. fvq. 

-v, A. vq. 
-i,, A. n;. 
-ov, A. avq. 

-ot, A. (oq. 



Ago. 
-iaq, I. Tjaq. 
-avq, I. tjat;. 



Thus, Gen. %8iX8og, of a lip, Dor. xsiXsvg; Yoc. Masc. 8vg- 
tv%8g, Attic dvGzv%ng; as, ovGZvpig yiqov, unfortunate old 
man ; Dat. pi. /fi£0"t, Ion. %8iq8Ggi, to hands ; Accus. Ar^zm, La- 
tona, Ion. Ar\zovv, Gen. aGzeog, of a city, Attic aGzsoog', Yoc 
aldol, modesty Attic aidcog. 



§31,32. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



39 



§ 31. THE PARAGOGIC <p« or yiv. 

109. — Sometimes, and particularly in Epic poetry, the sylla- 
ble q>i or cpiv annexed to the word, is used for the genitive or da- 
tive, both singular and plural. It is annexed, in the 

First declension, by changing a or n into tjcpi, e. g. xecpaltj, 
XECpuh'jcpi ; fiia, fifycpi, or ftiijtyiv. 

Second declension, by changing og or ov into ogee, e. g. gtqcc 
tog, Gtoatocpiv. 

Third declension, by changing og, genitive sog, into SGCpi; as, 
oftog, o/saqpe ; Gt/j&og, Grrftaayiv. 

110. — A few deviations from this mode of annexing the epi oc- 
cur. This form of the genitive and dative appears to have had 
originally an adverbial signification like the endings &i t &ev, ds. 
To render it more definite, the preposition was often prefixed, as, 
naga vavyiv, near the ship, or ships ; and lastly, it was used 
for a case without a preposition, in the same manner as the or- 
dinary forms of the genitive and dative ; thus, nlatbg ntvoqiv, 
the breadth of the fan, aylatqyt Tzenoi&cog, confiding in valour. 

111. — The termination &ev appears to be an appendage of a 
similar nature, but is found only in the genitive; as, «J ovoavo- 
&ev,from heaven. So ipt&ev for ipov ; at&ev for gov, <fcc. 



§ 32. GENDERS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

112. — The Genders of substantives of the third declension, 
so far as determined by the termination, are as follows : 

113. — RULES. 

1. Nouns in s vg, ag -avxog, av, and vi , are al- 
ways masculine ; as, 

svg oxsvg, 6 ^ a clasp Gen. 6%£og 

ag -avtog avboidg, 6 a statue avdoidvrog 

av fiaidv, 6 a pazan naiavog 

vv cpOQxvr, 6 a harbour cpognvvog 

2. Nouns in ag -ccSog, rrjg -rrjrog, avg, co, and 
verbals in eg, are always feminine ; as, 



40 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



33. 



ag> -adog 
zng f -zrjtog 
avg 

CO 

ig, verbal 


la\i7iag, tj 
xaxozrjg, tj 

vavg, rj 

CpSld(6, Tj 

cpi>6ig, Tj 


a torch 

wickedness 
a ship 
parsimony 
nature 


Gen 


Xafinddog 

xaxotijtog 

vaog 

qjeidoog 

(pvaecog 


3. Nouns in cc, i, v, 
always neuter. 


ag -arog, 


og, and oq, are 


a 
i 

V 


@TJfA,a, to 

[IS'Xl, tO 

TIGJV, tO 


a tribunal 
honey 
a flock 


Gen 


^Tjfiatog 

fisXizog 

Ttcosog 


ag -atog 
og 

OQ 


XQsag f to 
tefyog, to 
aoo, to 


flesh 
a wall 
a sword 




XQsatog 

tsfyeog 

dooog 



Obs. 1 . Nouns of other terminations are so varied in gender, 
that no general rule can be given respecting them. 

Obs. 2. Dialect frequently varies the gender in all the declen- 
sions. Thus, fiazog is masculine in Attic, otherwise feminine ; 
and so of others. 



114.— §33. WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE PRECED- 
ING RULES, FROM §§20-27. 

Decline the words in the following list ; accent them ; give the rule 
for the genitive and the accent, and for the other cases when they vary 
from the example &^q. 

[ovt) the old man. 



o ysgcov 



drjdmv (o) 

dyxcov 

drjQ 

ilmg 

'ioig 

xoQvg 



n 

'! 

to xv\ia 
6 \itjv 
to av&og 
to yivog 
7i dxtig 
o nivTjg 



8 






the nightingale, 
the elbow, 
the air (104-1). 
the hope, 
the strife, 
the helmet, 
the wave, 
the month. 
. the flower, 
the race, 
the ray. 
the poor man. 



to ooog 




the mountain. 


6 oosvg 




the mule. 


71 cpl6% 


to 


the flame. 


ITjV 




the goose. 


71 7TQa$lQ 

7 V'h 




the action. 


to 


the cough. 


V GOLQS 


to 


the flesh. 


71 JflCOV 

o ifidg 


(•) 


the snow. 


(vr) 


the thong. 


7) mtvg 




the pine. 


udvtig 




the seer. 




to 


the goat. 


b llflTjV 


w 


the haven. 



§ 34, 35. THIRD DECLENSION. 41 

§ 34. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

115. — In the oblique cases in the third declen- 
sion, there is no contraction, unless the first of the 
concurrent vowels is either short, or a doubtful 
taken as short. 

In verbs and in some other contractions, the first of the con- 
current vowels is sometimes long. 



§ 35. GENERAL RULES. 

116. — The following Rules are universal, being applicable, not 
only to contractions of the third declension, but also to those of 
verbs, and of all cases in which concurrent vowels admit of con- 
traction, except such as fall under the rules for contractions in the 
1st and 2d declensions, 81 and 89. Concurrent vowels are con- 
tracted as follows : 

1. A short vowel with the same, is contracted 
into its own diphthong ; as, et into ti ; oo into ov. 

Exc. 1. In the third declension, es of the dual is contracted 
into jj. 

II. A short vowel with the other short, is con- 
tracted into ov ; as, os or to into ov. 

III. A short vowel with #, is contracted into 
its own long vowel ; as, s a into 77 ; oa into co. 

Exc. 2. But ea pure into a. 

IV. A short vowel with 1, is contracted by Sy- 
nceresis / as, t'C into si ; o'l into oc. 

V. E before a long vowel or a diphthong, is re- 
jected. 

Exc. 3. But in verbs, sai is contracted into #. 

VI. 1. O with a long vowel, is contracted into 
co ; as, or] into co ; oco into co. 

2. O with a diphthong, the prepositive vowel 
being rejected, is contracted by Synceresis ; as, 00c 
into ot, <fcc. 



42 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§36. 



Exc. 4. But osig and ow, i being rejected, are contracted by 
Crasis into ovg and ovv. 

VII. 1. A with o, or «, is contracted into a ; 
as_, # o or aa) y into 6?. 

2. A with a vowel, not o or w, is contracted into 
a ; as, or* into «, <fcc. 

Ofo. 1. A before a diphthong is contracted with the preposi- 
tive vowel only, the subjunctive being rejected. 

Obs. 2. In contraction by crasis, i is never rejected, but is writ- 
ten under: except in osiv and obis, 119, Exc. 3. 

Obs. 3. Neuters in as pure and gas, reject t in the oblique 
cases, and then contract the concurrent vowels. 

VIII. If the former of two vowels is t or v, or 
a long vowel, the latter is rejected; as, is contract- 
ed l\ ye, v; rjs, r\. 

Note. JSdoq and aooq, safe, when a contraction occurs, are contracted 
by the foregoing rules ; thus, crdoq, Go)q, VII. 1. ; adov, aow, VII. 1. ; ada, 
ad, VII. 2. ; adovq, aiHq, VIL 1. ; aoaq, ooiq, ITT. 



§36. EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES FOR 
CONTRACTIONS. 



1 1 7. — The following list comprises all the concurrent vowels 
that usually admit of contraction. Contract them and give the 
rules. 



1 aa 

2 ee 

3 U 

4 oo 

5 as 

6 aij 

7 ai 

8 ao 

9 aco 

10 asi 

11 «fl 



12 aoi 

13 aov 

14 set 

15 sa, pure 

16 si 

17 so 

18 sco 

19 sco 

20 sai 

21 €«t 

22 sy 



23 sot 

24 sov 

25 ^e 

26 ?/< 

27 ?]si 

28 jycM 

29 is 

30 oa 

31 06 

32 ori 

33 oi" 



34 oca 

35 o«t 

36 o?/ 

37 ooi 

38 oov 

39 va 

40 i/e 

41 My, rare 

42 coa 

43 cot 



§37. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



43 



WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 



1 1 8. — In the following words, contract the concurrent 
the rule for each contraction,— change the accent where 
contraction, and give the reason for the change 



Ar{(lOG&8VEOg ECLQ 

%qka (exc. 2) Jr^oad-ivEi 

cpiXsco cpilmg 

Jrnioa&svioiv dift.oot, 

tifidofiev zifidco 

TlfiaOVOi Zlf.MX.El 

XEQai' xEQag -azog 

fiozQVEg ti&ijcu, 

XEQUOIV flE f QEOg 

flEQEOiV flEQEa 

nolEEg cpEidoog 
MQCczog, 116. Obs. 3. xsQazoiv 

yjgccu xEQara 

XEQCtTE XEQOLZCOV 

fiosg qdt'e 



sttjToog 

Ar^oadivEOL 

Aijtoi 

dt]X6co 

dyloov 

Xdag 

zifidq 

oyiEg 

nfitjsv 

fiEQEl 
[IEQECOV 

(pEidoi 

cpitiri 

zijidt] 

dqXorj 

adog 



vowels, — give 
required after 

fiehroEv 

HQaxJJijg 
dtjIoqiE 

zi\iOLE 
ztfidsig 

OQpU, 

XEQaa 

flEQE€ 

qiEidoa 

zif-idot 
dijlooi 
aoccg 



§37.— CONTRACTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

119. — N. B. In the inflection of declinable words, the vowels 
that concur are the final vowel of the root, and the first vowel or 
diphthong of the termination. In the examples of contracts that 
follow, as well as in the table of contract verbs (258), the hyphen 
( - ) does not separate the termination from the root, but that part 
of the root not affected by contraction, from the rest of the word. 
By this means the concurrent vowels are brought together, and 
the change made by contraction, is rendered more obvious. 

120. — Concurrent vowels are not always con- 
tracted in the third declension, but only as direct- 
ed by the following — 

SPECIAL KULES. 

1. The accusative plural assumes the contrac 
tion of the nominative ; thus, 

N. roitiQ-EEg, ) r N. ocp-isg, ) * N. Botg-vEg, ) Q , 

A. tUUas, \ W" £,? - A. faae, \ •**• A. ^^, f ^^ 



44 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



37 



Exc. But sag pure is contracted into dg (116, Exc. 2); as, 
Xoeag, %oag. 

2. The genitive in sog, from rjg, eg, og, or in 
oog, not from ovg, and also neuters in ag pure and 
(?#£, contract the concurrent vowels in all cases. 

121. — Example of the Genitive in sog,from qg. 

r} ZQiTjQqg, the trireme. 



Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. TQlfjQ-Tjg 


N. A. V. 


N. tQitjo-eeg 


-sig 


G. toiqo-sog -ovg 


ZQIi]q-£E -7] 


GK TQir{Q-£(DV 


-OJV 


D. tow/osi -si 


G. D. 


D, TQUjQ-SOl 




A. TQlfjQ-Sa -7] 


roiriQ-ioiv -oiv 


A. TQu;Q-£ag 


-sig 


V. tgif t Qsg 




V. rou'iQ-eeg 


-sig 


122. — Example 


of the Genitive 

rb tsixog, the wall. 


in £og,from 


og. 


Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. tsix-og 


N. A. V. 


N. tstx-Ecc 


"1 


G. Tsi%-sog -ovg 


xsix-ss -t] 


G. zsix-scov 


-m 


D. Tsix-SL -si 


G. D. 


D. tsix-SGi 




A. T8i%-og 


tsix-soiv -oiv 


A. rslx-sa 


-v 


Y. T£i%-og 




V. zeix-sa 


-n 


VIZ.— The C 


renitive in oog, n 


otfrom ovg. 






t) fya, the echo. 


' 




Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. r)%-co 


N. A. V. 


N. r)x-oi 




G. fy-oog -ovg 


t)X'CO 


G. tjx-mv 




D. r)x-oi' -oi 


G. D. 


D. rjx-oTg 




A. fy-oa -w 


ilX'Oiv 


A. i)x-ovg 




V. r)x-oi 




V. foot 





124. — Obs. 1. Nouns in co and cog have the singular only, of 
the third declension. The dual and plural are of the second, 136 
-2 (4). Hence the contraction takes place only in the singular, 
as in the above example. The accusative in 6a contracted to, 
from the nominative in ag, has the circumflex according to rule 
(80 Obs.) ; as, aidoa contr. aida. The same contraction from 
the nominative in ro, has the acute; as in the example 123. 



§37. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



45 



125. — Examples of Neuters in ag pure and gag. (116, Obs. 3.) 



•aog 
-ai 



-as 
-doiv 



-cog 
-a 



-a 
-cov 



-mg 
-a 



-a 

-COV 



to xoeag, the flesh 
Singular. 
N. A. V. xoe'-ag 
G. xqs-azog 
D. xos-azi 

Dual. 
N. A. V. xos-azs 
G.D. xqs-dzoiv 

Plural. 
N. A. V. nge-aza -aa -a JN . A. V . xso-aza -aa -a 
G. Hos-dzcov -dcov -6w G. xso-dzcov -dcov -cov 

D. xoe'-acu 

126. — 3. The genitive in aog or acog, not from r^g, 
sg, og ; and also the genitive in cog, contract only 
the dative singular and the nominative, accusative, 
and vocative plural. Those in avg contract also 
the nominative dual. 

127. — Examples of the Genitive inscog, not from ng, eg, or og. 
b fiaaiksvg, the king. 



zb xz'oag, the horn, 
Singular. 
N. A. V. xso-ag 
G. xe'o-azog 
D. xtQ-ari 

Dual. 
N. A. V. vJo-azs 
G.D. xeo-dzoiv 

Plural. 
N. A. V. xso-ara 

G. XSQ-dzC0V 

D. xtQ-aai 



aog 
a'i 



-as 
-doiv 



Singular. 




Dual 




Plural. 


N. fiaoiX-evg 


N. A. V. 


N. fiacik-ssg -sig 


G. paoil-s'cog, (98-4) 


Baad-ss -tj 


G. fiacnX-e'cov 


D. ftaaiX-ei -si 


G.J). 


D. fiaail-svGi 


A. fiaail-sa 


fiacjik-soiv 


A. ^acil-sag -sig 


V. fiaaik-sv 




V. fiaaiK-ssg -sig 


Exc. But nouns in svg after a vowel, contract also the genitive 


and accusative singular, and the genitive plural ; thus, 


b x os v$} the measure. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 


N. %0-svg 


N. A. V. 


N. %0-ssg -sig 


G. %0-scag -cog 


fp-ss -n 


G. %os'cov -cov 


D. %0-ii -si 


G. D. 


D. £0-£V(7t 


A. yp-ia -a 


Xo-soiv 


A. %0-sag -a? (11 6, exc. 2) 


V. fp-sv 






V. xo 


-ssg -sig 



3* 



46 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



§37. 



In this way IJeiQaievg has genitive IletQCucog, Ace. TlEiqaia ; 
and ayvievg, in the accusative plural, has ayviag contracted for 
IleiQcuEcog, IleiQcuea, ayvieag; and so of others. 

r\ Tiofag, the city. 
Dual. 
N. A. V. 
tzoX-es 

G. D. 
noX-(oiv 



Singular. 
N. nbX-ig 
G. TtoX-soog 
D. noX-u h 
A. noX-iv 
V. Trtft-t 



Plural. 
N. noX-ug 
G. ttoX-bcov 

D. 7T(U-£0"t(*>) 

A. noX-eag 
V. ^oX-«€? 



«£ 






The Ionics always decline words in ig, genitive tog ; as, ^6Xt?, 
log, like noqtig ; but they make the dative in si. 

128. — Exam/pie of the Genitive in cog. 

b, i\ noQtig, the calf. 



Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. noqr-ig 


\ N. A. V. 


ET. noot-ieg 


-ig 


G. noqt-iog 

D. TZOQt'U -I 


nbqr-is 
G. D. 


G. noor-icov 

D. 7T0QT-iai 




A. TTOQt-lV 


TTOQt-lOlV 


A. TzoQt-wg 


-ig 


V. noqt'i 




V. 7TOQT-l£g 


•ig 



Note. The words declined in this way, besides nogrvq, are 6 x/s, <Ae 
wood-worm; 6, t} tiyou;, the tiger ; 6 noat-q, the husband; tj fiyvoq, wrath ; 
tj xoonvq, the heel; and the uncontracted oiq, a sheep; — some proper 
names; as, '/?>*?; — and adjectives in tq, l, which have toq in the genitive 
Other nouns in tq not inserting a consonant are declined like nofoq. 

129. — Exc. Adjectives in vg, neuter v, have the common geni- 
tive (sog), and do not contract sa in the plural. 152. 

130. — 4. Nouns in vg vog, and ovg oog 9 contract 
only the nominative, accusative, and vocative plu- 
ral; as, 

6 ix&vg, the fish. 
Dual. 
N. A. V. 
h&-vs 

lyft-voiv 



Singular. 
ivd'-vg 
ir&-vog 
iY&~vi 

IT&-VV 

V. ix&-v 

So 6 fiovg, the ox, G. §oog, 



Plural. 



N ix&-veg 

G. IY&-VOW 
D. IY&-VGI 

A. i%d--vag 
V. l%&-veg 


-vg 




-vg 


-vg 



N. V. Plural, §6sg, contr. §ovg % 
A. " §6ag, " §ovg 



§37. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



47 



131. — 5. Comparatives in av reject v in the ac- 
cusative singular, and in the nominative, accusative, 
and vocative plural, and then contract the concur- 
rent vowels ; as, 

fieXzicov, better. 

Singular. Dual. 

M. & F. M. & F. 

N. pelri-av N. A. V. 

G. ftsXzt-ovog fieXzi-ovs 

D. §eXzi-on G. D. 

A. fieXzi-ova, -oa, -co fcXzi-ovow 
V. fieXri-ov 



Plural. 

M. & F. 
N. fieXzi-wsg, -oeg, -ovg 
G. fieXzi-ovcov 
D. {teXti-oat 

A. fieXzi-ovag, -oag, -ovg 
V. peXzi-oveg, -oeg -ovg 



N. A. V. Plural, Neuter, fisXzi-ova, -oa, -t». 

132. — 6. The nominative contracted, is then de- 
clined regularly; as, 

sag, spring, by contraction qg, G. ygog, D. %gt, <fec. 
Xaag, a stone, " Xag, G. Xaog, D. Xai] &c. 

133. — Obs. 2. When vowels concur in the oblique cases after 
the contraction of the nominative, they are moreover contracted 
in the usual way ; thus, 'HgaxXs'qg, Hercules, is contracted into 
HgaxXrjg, and then declined and contracted as follows : 
N. 'HgaxX-ijg, 

G. 'HgaxX-eog, contr. 'HgaxX-ovg, 

D. 'HgaxX-si, f HgaxX-u, 

A. 'HgaxX-t'a, 'HgaxX-tj. 

V. 'HgaxX-sg. 

134. — 7. In adjectives, the masculine and femi- 
nine, in the oblique cases, assume the contraction 
of the neuter ; thus, 

ptXtTotiQ, made of honey. 

Nom. fieXiz-oetg fisXiz-osaaa peXiz-oev 

contr. fisXit-ovg fieXiz-ovaaa [isXiz-ovv 

Gen. [AsXiz-ovvrog fisXtt-ovac^g fisXiz-ovvzog,' <fec. 

rijuqsig, honoured. 

Nom. zifi-?;si,g nfi-tjeGoa zifi-rjev 

contr. rip-rig nfi-mo'a fifju-ijv 

Gen. TifA-Tjvzog zifi-tjCGTjg zifi-ijvzog, <fea 



48 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



§ 38, 39 



135.— §38. WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION TO 
BE DECLINED AND CONTRACTED. 

(N. B. The following method of practising on these exercises will 
direct the student in his preparation. E. g. ivaifirjq — Form the genitive;. 
— give the rule; — decline ; — what cases contract the concurrent vowels? — 
give the rule ;— decline and contract, giving the rule for each contraction. 
This exercise should be continued till the student is perfectly ready and 
at ease in the whole process.) 



£vcep?jg, pious. 
CLfxdvGiv, better. 
czdyvg, a spike of corn, 
aosiwv, more excellent, 
vofjievg, a shepherd. 
cpELdw, parsimony, 
ytjoctg, old age. 
Jilikl&vg, Achilles. 
VTzeotyvrjg, excellent. 
dXndig, true. 
[ivg, a mouse, 
peoog, a part. 
nXuov, more. 



YQacpEvg, a painter. 
lleQMlerjg, Pericles, 
iyftvg, a fish. 
tiXucqv, more, 
aazv, a city, 
rjcag, the morning, 
fia&vg, deep. 
foXzicov, better. 
7Z8i&co, persuasion, 
rfivy sweet. 
Ttoaig, a husband. 
ijxrog, custom, 
xtqag, a horn. 



aidmg, modesty. 
Tisgag, a limit, 
zelxog, a wall, 
dovg, an oak. 
qiovevg, a murderer-, 
avcudr'jg, impudent, 
ooog, a mountain, 
(podaig, diction. 
TZQtofivg, old. 
ivdstjg, indigent. 
dioxXiqg, Diodes, 
inog, a word, 
doopevg, a runner. 



136.— §39. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

1. Some nouns have one gender in the singular, and another 
in the plural ; as, 

(1.) '0 diqiQog, the chariot-seat; 6 iioyXog, the lever; 6 xal 
t] Tdozaoog, Tartarus; b ZQu%?jX6g, the neck; 6 dsafiog, the 
decree ; b vwzog, the back ; 6 EQSZfiog, the oar ; 6 £vyog, the 
yoke, are neuter in the plural; as, zd dicpga, <fcc. The three 
last have also neuter forms in the singular, as, zb vwzov, &c, but 
with a variation of meaning. 

(2.) '0 decftog, the bond ; b Xv%vog, the lamp ; b xvxXog, the 
circle ; b ffloog, the thigh ; b ofoog, corn ; b Gzadpog, the sta- 
tion ; have both a masculine and neuter form m the plural ; as, 
t deapoi, and zee decpd, &c. 

(3.) *H xsXev&og, the way, has at xsXev&oi and zd xeXsv&a. 

(4.) To azddiov, the stadium, has oi azddioi y and zd azddia. 

(5.) JHvwJ, a woman; bdog, a way; noXig, a city ; %biq, a 
hand, feminines, have too yvvaixe, za odco, za nbXve,, and rci 
X&QSf i Q the nominative and accusative dual. 



§89. THIRD DECLENSION. 49 

2. Some have more than one declension ; thus, 

(1.) Some are of the 1st and 2d, as, ?; Gzscpdv?], and 6 azeqa- 
vog, a crown; — some, of the 1st and 3d, as, Mcooijg, -ov; and 
Maaevg, -ecog, Moses. 2d and 3d, as, to ddxovov, -ov, and to 
ddxov, -vog ; (idozvoog, -ov, and fidozvo, -voog, a witness. 

(2.) Some have more than one declension, in the oblique 
cases, from one form of the nominative ; thus, QdXqg, gen. -ov 
1st, and -nzog 3d, Thales ; J^Qvg, -ov 1st, and -eog and -nzog 
3d, Mars ; 6 and to axozog, darkness ; o%og, a chariot ; iXeog, 
mercy ; zdotyog, pickle ; oaaog, an eye ; have -ov the 2d, and 
-eog the 3d ; oacog is used mostly in the dual, ocas <fcc. 3d, and 
G. and D. plural oggcov, oaaocg, 2d. 

(3.) Some have the forms of different declensions, in certain 
cases, though not regularly declined through all the cases ; thus, 
1st and 3d in the ace. sing. Aqfioadevng, ace. -qv and -ea, De- 
mosthenes ; ^ooxodzTjg, Socrates, ace. 2^(oxqdz7]v and -ea ; dXxn, 
fortitude, gen. -tjg (1st), dat. -i (3d) ; wpivv, a battle, dat. vGfii- 
vtq and vapin (1st and 3d) ; dvdodnodov, a slave, 2d, dat. pi. av- 
doa7i6deG6i, 3d, Horn.; yeXcog 6, laughter, G. yeXcozog, aco. yeXco- 
za and yeXcov, after the Attic form of the 2d declension (88). 

(4.) Feminine nouns in co, and tag, of the third declension, 
have generally the form of the second as if from og, in the dual 
and plural, when their meaning is such as to admit of their being 
used in these numbers. 

3. Some, from one form of the nominative, have different 
forms in the oblique cases, in the same declension ; thus, ziyoig, 
a tiger, has -log and -idog; Qepig, Justice, has -idog, -vzog, and 
-lozog ; Xdomv, Charon, has -covog and ovzog ; yovv, a knee, and 
doov, a spear, have -vog and -azog; XQ^?> ^gotoV, and XQ°v£> 
XQoog, the skin, have two forms of the nominative, as well as of 
the oblique cases, both of the 3d. 

4. Some appear to form the oblique cases from obsolete nomi- 
natives ; as, facto, a liver ; i^iaq, a day ; eldao, food ; (poeao, 
a well ; aziaq, fat ; xdonaq, a head ; dXeiyao, ointment ; 81- 
Xeag, a bait ; oveiao, a benefit ; ov&ao, fatness ; vdco.o, water ; 
gxwq, dirt ; yovv, the knee ; dogv, a spear, have the genitive in 
-azog j as if from nominatives in ag ; thus, faazog, vdazog, yova- 
zog. Ovg, an ear, wzog ; ydXa, milk, ydXaxzog ; yvvrj, a woman, 
yvvaixog, voc. yvvai ; 'Ivcovg, gen. ov f dat. ov ; ace. ovv ; voc. ov. 

5. Some are indeclinable, i. e. have no change of termination 
in the different cases ; such as, 

(1.) Names of letters; as, zo aXya, zov dXcpa, &c. (2.) Th« 
cardinal numbers from nivze to exazbv. (3.) Poetic nouns whidi 



50 THIRD DECLENSION. § 40, 41, 

have lost the last syllable by apocope ; as, to 8m, for dtofia. (4.) 
Foreign names which are not susceptible of Greek inflexions ; as. 
6 Afioaaii, tov ^gadfi, &c 



137.— §40. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

1. Some nouns have no plural* as, <*//£>, air; tzvq, fire; eXaiov, 
oil ; pj f earth ; aMg> shame ; aXg, salt. 

2. Some have no singular; as, dXcpita, victuals; A&rjvai, 
Athens; dveioata, dreams ; and the names of festivals; as, Ila- 
vad-qvaia, Panathencea. 

3. Some occur in one case only, and are called monoptotes; 
as, (o tdv, friend, co nonoiy gods ; to ocpeXog, the advan- 



4. Some have only two cases (diptotes); as, nom. XTg, ace. Xiv, 
a lion; nom. Zevg y voc. Zsv, Jupiter ; to ovaq, the vision; nom. 
and ace. 

5. Some have only three (triptotes), as, nom. iidgtvg, a wit- 
ncss, ace. [idotvv, dat. plur. fidotvci. 

6. The Poets sometimes by apocope (40-6th) cut off the final 
letter or syllable from a word; as, xdon for xdoTp>ov, a head. 
Such words are then indeclinable (136-5). 



§41. NOUNS OF PECULIAR SIGNIFICATION. 

138. — Some nouns have peculiar significations, according to 
their terminations ; as, 

1. Masculine Patronymics, (53-1, 1st) commonly in 3ng or 
tov ; as, IltjXevg, Peleus, nsXeidqg, Pelides, or the son of Pele- 
us ; Kgovog, Saturn, Kgovicov or Koovidqg, the son of Saturn. 

2. Feminine Patronymics, commonly in lag and ig, ivr} and 
tcovn ; as, Arpvsidg and Arftmg, from ./fyroo, Latona ; jihqr^tivt] 
from J^dgrjatog ; Ntjgivtj from Nygsvg ; Xxgwrnvn from Jixqi- 
cwg, &c. 

3. Gentile Nouns, (53-1, 2d) commonly in qg 9 og, or evg 
masculine ; and a, ag y or ig, feminine ; as, ^adgtn, Sparta y 
JSaaondtqg, a Spartan; £a[idgsia, Samaria, 2andgmig t a 
woman of Samaria, But many of these are declined as regular 
adjectives. 



§42. 



THE ARTICLE. 



51 



1 Root. 


Ter. 


Derivative. 




note 
nois 

71018 


-fia 
•Gig 
-tvg 


Tzoiqua 
nolqGig 
now\ti\g 


a poem 

the art of poetry 

a poet 


TZQCty 

nqay 
no ay 


-pa 
-Gig 

or -trig 


noayaa 
noci^ig, 44-7 

7TQaxzr t g, ) 


a deed 

action or doing 

-2 a doer 



4. Diminutives, (53-2, 3d) commonly in ta, tov, iGxog, or Xog ; 
as, natf t q, a father, natqihov, a little father (a term of endear- 
ment) ; nalg, a boy or girl, /rcudtov, a little boy or girl, nai- 
Sight], a young daughter ; eqwg, love, iqazvXog, a little lover, 

5. Amplificatives, (53-2, 4th) commonly in fia, or cw; as, 
oixog, a house, oixypa, a large building ; &qaGvg, bold, &qdaow, 
a bully. 

6. Verbal Nouns. From the first root of the verb (209-4) 
are formed three nouns of different terminations and signification, 
indicating respectively the thing done, the doing, and the doer ; 
as follows, 

Verb. 
noisco 



nqaGGW 



§42. THE ARTICLE. 

139. — The article is an adjective word of three 
genders, and irregular in the nominative singular. 
In the oblique cases, the masculine and the neuter 
gender are of the second declension ; the feminine 
is of the first. It wants the vocative, and is thus 
declined : 



N. 6 
G. tov 
D. zdp 
A. tov 

140. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The Greeks spoke definitely, by placing the article before 
the substantive ; indefinitely, by omitting it or prefixing the pro- 
noun tig\ as, 6 av&qatnog, the man ; dv&qoDTiog, a man ; or tis 
av&qmrtog, any man. 



pillar. 




Dual. 




Plural. 




t) to 




N. A. 




N. ol at 


td 


trjg tov 


TO) 


td 


tco 


G. tmv tmv 


tmv 


tTjV tO 




G. D. 




D. tolg taXg 


toTQ 


tolv 


talv 


tow 


A. tovg tag 


ta 



52 THE ADJECTIVE. §43, 44 

2. In grammar and lexicography, the article is used techni- 
cally to distinguish the gender of nouns (58, 06s. 1). 

3. The enclitic 8e annexed to the article through all its cases, 
gives it the force of the pronoun " this ; " as, ode, yds, tods, this, 
he, she, it ; Gen. tovde, ttjads, tovde, &c. In Homer and the 
other old Epic writers, the article itself is, with few exceptions, 
ised in this sense. 

4. The article 6, %, to, is sometimes used as a relative. (See 
186-2.) 

141. — Note. The article o,Tj,r6, being commonly placed before a 
noun, is by some grammarians called the prepositive article, to distin- 
guish it from the relative pronoun bq, r\, b, which, from being generally 
placed after the noun to which it refers, they call the postpositive arti- 
cle. 



142.— § 43. DIALECTS OF THE AETICLE. 

Singular. 
M. and N. Fern. 

N. 6 to rj D. a 

G. tov A. I. P. toTo D. tm,tev P. tm tr\g D. tag 
I). T(p I. reip tn T>. ta 

A. tov to trp> D. tav 

Plural. 
M. and N. Fem. 

N. ol D. toi neut. td at D. tai 

G. tmv I. tsoov tcov D. tav ^E. td&jv 

D. tolg J). & I. torn I. reoiai taig D. & I. tarn, trjoi 

.P. toidsai and toideaai 
A. roi;£ D. to? tcog tag 



§ 44. THE ADJECTIVE. 

143. — An adjective is a word used to qualify a 
substantive; as, ccyu&og avr\q, a good man; 
fjila fjiisga, one day. 

A noun is " qualified' 1 '' by an adjective, when the object named 
is thereby described, limited, or distinguished from other things 
of the same name. 



§45. 



FTEST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 



53 



1. The accidents of the adjective are gender, number, and 
case ; and in most adjectives also comparison. 

2. Adjectives in Greek, as well as Latin, indicate the gender, 
number, and case, by the termination ; as, nal-og masc, nal-rj 
fern., aal-ov neuter, &c. 

3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives, while 
in time and signification, they belong to the verb. 

4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different termina- 
tion in the nominative, and consequently have three terminations. 
Some have one form common to the masculine and feminine, and 
are adjectives of two terminations ; and some are adjectives of 
one termination, which is common to the masculine and feminine ; 
such want the neuter. 

5. In adjectives of three terminations, the feminine is always 
of the first declension. In all adjectives, the masculine is alwaya 
of the second or third; and the declension of the neuter, is always 
the same with that of the masculine. 



§ 45. REGULAR ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND 
SECOND DECLENSIONS. 

144.— 1. Adjectives of the first and second de- 
clensions have the masculine always in o£, the 
feminine always in r] or «, and the neuter always 
in or; thus, 

xalog, beautiful. 

Singular. 

JST. nal-6g -r t -6v 

G. y.al-ov -yjg -ov 

D. xaX-cp -rj -op 

A. y.al-6v -fa -6v 

V. xal-8 -r\ -ov 



Dual. 
N. A.V. 
xal-co -d -co 

G. D. 
xal-olv -alv -olv 



Plural. 

N. xal-oi -at -a 

G. xal-oov -oov -gov 

D. xal-oig -aig -oic, 

A. xal-ovg -dg -d 

V. xal-oi <ai -d 

Thus decline dya&og, good ; xaxog, bad; epilog, friendly ; 
palaxog, soft; levxog, white; dtjlog, manifest; analog, tender; 
TEQTTvog, pleasant. 

145. — 2. But oq pure, and qoq, have a in the 
feminine; as, 



54 



FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 



§45. 



Singular. 






Si 


ngular. 




N. gddi-og -a 


-ov 


N. 


yaveo-og 


r 

a 


r 

OV 


G. Qadi-ov -ag 


-ov 


G. 


cpctveo-ov 


ag 


OV 


T>. gadi-cp -a 


~(p 


B. 


cpav8Q-cp 


a 


f 


A. Qadi-ov -av 


-ov 


A. 


cpav8Q-6v 


av 


OV 


V. Qadi-e -a 


-ov 


V. 


yavEQ-e 


a 


ov 



The dual and plural terminations are the same as in xalog. 
But the rules for the accents in the masculine and neuter (84), 
and in the feminine (72), must be carefully observed. 

146. — Exc. The terminations oog, and sometimes sog, espe- 
cially in adjectives denoting matter and colour, retain ^ ; as, 
oydoog, the eighth, oydorj ; oloog, pernicious, 6Xo?j ; %QVoeog, gold- 
en, %qvo~87] ; cpoivixEog, purple, cpoivme'rj. Except where q stands 
before the vowel; as, d&QOog, frequent, d&qoa; doyvosog, silver, 
aoyvoea. 

147. — 3. The Attics often decline adjectives in 
oq y especially derivatives and compounds, by the 
common gender, without the feminine termina- 
tion ; thus, 

d&dvazog, d&dvazog, d&dvazov, immortal. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



N. aftavaz-og -og -ov 
G. ddavdz-ov -ov -ov 
D. ddavdz-cp -cp -cp 
A. d&dvaz-ov -ov -ov 
V. d&dvaz-s -s -ov 



N. A. V. 
a&avdz-co -co -co 

G. D. 
d&avdr-oiv -oiv -oiv 



N. d&dvaz-oi -oi -a 
G. a&avdz-cov -cov -cov 
D. dfravdz-oig -oig -oig 
A. d&avdz-ovg -ovg -a 
V. d&dvaz-ot -oi -a 



Adjectives of the common gender are often expressed thus : 

6, r\ d&dvazog, to d&dvazov. 
zov, tijg, zov d&avdzov, &c. 

In the same manner decline — 



M. &F. 


N. 




ndttcyCkog 


ndficfikov 


from nav and qiilog 


a8ixog 


adiKOv 


from dr/.i] 


ovoanog 
Ofiooog 


ovqaviov 

OflOQOV 


from ovqavog 

from bfiog and ooog 



Note. Though this form of declension is most used by the Attia 
writers, it is not confined to them. Instances of it occur in Homer. 



§46. 



FIEST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. 



55 



§46. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND THIRD 
DECLENSIONS. 

148. — The masculine and neuter of all adjec- 
tives not ending in og, are of the third declension. 
The regular terminations of these are — 

M. F. N. 

1. ag cuv a ccv 

2. sig too a sv 

3. vg ticc v 

Adjectives, so far as they are of the third declension, are ac- 
cented the same as nouns, according to the rules, 94. 

149. — 1. Example of an Adjective in ccg, cciva, 
ccv / ptXug, black. 

Singular. 

fieX-cura 

[xeX-aivrjg 
fiel-aivri 
[it'l-cuvav 
fUk-cuvet 

Dual. 
uek-cUva 

[ieX-cclvcuv 

Plural. 

fieX-atvai 

ftsX-awow 

fieX-aivaig 

fieX-aivug 

150. — 2. Example of an Adjective in tig, saacc 
tv ; xccgittg, comely. 

Singular. 

N. x a Q ( '~ El S 
G. yaQt-eviog 

D. XCLQl-EVtl 

A. yagi-evxa. 
V. %agi-w -eig 



N. (xs).-ag 

G. [ul-avog 

D. (ie'X-an 

A. {isX-ava 

V. [isX-av 

N. A. V. fjJX-avs 

G. D. fieX-dvoiv 

N. V. fisX-avsg 

G. fieX-dvcov 

D. fis7.-aai 

A. fieX-avag 



fis'X-av 

fisX-avog 

fis'X-an 

fisX-av 

fit'X-av 

{ilX-ave 
[isX-dvoiv 

fisX-ava 
fieX-avmv 
liiX-aai, 46-16. 
fitX-ava 



yagi-eaaa 


Xv-Qi-w 


XttQi- £6(TTjg 


XocQi-svTog, 100-2. 


yaQi-tGcri 


XaQi-evn 


XctQi-eoaav 


Xccq(-£v 


Xu-Qi-zcaa 


pXQi-ep 



56 



FIKST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. 



§46. 



N. A. V. %aQi-evT8 
G. D. lOLQi-ivtoiv 



N. V. %aQi-evrsg 
G. %aQi-£vrcov 
D. %agi-eim 
A. %aQi-evtag 



Dual. 

%aQl-8GG(X. 
lOLQl-WGOLlV 

Plural. 

%aQl-6GG(U 
%a,Ql-86GWV 
%(X,Ql-8GGCUg 

Xagi-eGGag 



%aQl-EVT8 

%a,Qi-tvzoiv 



%aQi-evTa 
laqi-ivtcov 
XCCQI-81GI, 47-18. 
%aQl-8VTCC 



151. — Obs. According to Buttmann, adjectives in 8ig (but not 
participles) have sgi and not siGi f in the dative plural. Prof. An- 
thon adopts the same termination. When so used it must be re- 
garded as an exception to the general rule, § 6, 18. 

152. — 3. Example of an Adjective in vg, eta, v ; 
rjdvg, sweet. 



Singular. 

N. r)8-vg qS-sia 

G. tj8-8og tjd-eiag 

D. t)8-8% contr. -si ?)8-8ia 

A. ?)8-vv, or -/a, 102-2. ij8-8iav 



V. ifi-v 

N. A. V. rfi-i* 
G. D. i)8-s'oiv 



N. V. qS-s'sg, contr. sig 
G. ijd-swv 

D. fjd-861 

A. vd-s'ag, contr. sig 



Dual. 

tfi-efa 
ifi-eicuv 

Plural. 
7jd-8iai 

r)§-8lG3V 

rfi-Bicug 
ifi-siag 



i)b-v 

i)d-8og 

fjd-8% contr. sl 

r]d-v 

7]8-V 



?j8-8 f s 



ifi-Ectj not contr. 129. 

f/8-8Gl 

t)8-8cc, not contr. 



After the same manner decline 
1. 



zdX-ag 

ushro-sig 
Tilijj-eig 



-cuva 



2. 



-8GG0L 
-SGGCC 



-av 



-8V 



yk.vy.-vg 
ruiiG-vg 
fiaq-vg 
Ba&-vg 
o$-vg 



3. 

-81CC 
-81(1 

-sia 
-8ia 
-eia 



-v 

-v 

-V 

-v 

r 

-v 



§47. 



DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. 



57 



§ 47. DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. 

153. — Participles are declined like adjectives of three termi- 
nations: those of the middle and passive in og, are inflected 
throughout like xalog, 144. Of others, the feminine always fol- 
lows the terminations of the first declension, and the masculine 
and neuter, those of the third, the genitive being always formed 
as directed, 100, Obs. 1. The terminations of these are as fol- 



10' 


svs : 
M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


1. 


-cov 


-ova a 


-ov < 


Gren. -ovzog 


-owyg 


-ovzog, &c. 


2. 


-cov 


-ovaa 


-6v 


-ovzog 


-ovarjg 


-ovzog, &c. 


3. 


-ag 


-enact 


-av 


-avzog 


-aGTjg 


-avzog, &g. 


4. 


-cog 


-via 


-og 


-ozog 


•viag 


-ozog, &c. 


5. 


-sig 


-siaa 


-8V 


-tvzog 


-Eiarjg 


-e'vzog, &c. 


6. 


-ovg 


, -ova a. 


-ov 


-ovzog 


-ovGijg 


-ovzog, &c. 


7. 


-vg 


-VGCt 


-vv 


-vvzog 


-vGijg ' 


-vvzog, &c. 



Of these the 2d, 3d, and 4th are declined as examples ; thus, 

154. — 1. tvticdv, hiving struck. (2 Aor. Act.) 

Singular. 





N. 


ZV71-CQV 


ZV7T-0VGCX, 


ZV71-0V 




G. 


zvn-ovzog 


zvn-ovG^g 


zvn-ovzog 




D. 


zvn-ovzi 


ZVn-OVGTj 


ZV7Z-OVZI 




A. 


zvn-ovza 


zvn-ovGav 


zvn-ov 




V. 


ZV71-CQV 


ZV7Z-0V6CC 

Dual. 


ZV7T-OV 


N. A. 


V. 


ZV7T-OVZS 


ZVn-OVGCC 


ZV71-OVZ8 


G. 


D. 


zvn-ovzoiv 


ZV7T-OVGCUV 

Plural. 


ZV71-0VZ01V 




N. 


zvn-ovzsg 


ZVTl-OVGCtl 


zvn-ovza 




G. 


ZV71-OVZCOV 


ZV7T-0VGCOV 


zvn-bvzcov 




D. 


ZV7T-OVGI 


zvn-ovGaig 


zvn-ovGi,\l- 




A. 


zvn-ovzag 


zvn-ovGdg 


zvn-ovza 




V. 


zvn-ovzsg 


ZV71-0VG0LI 


zvn-ovza 



•18 



In this manner are declined all participles which have v before 
tog in the genitive ; also the adjectives ixcov and d&xcov. When 
the accent of the nominative is on the penult, it remains there, 
except as required by the general rules (15 — 19). 



58 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TEKMINAi'lONS. §47. 

2. rvipccg, having struck. (1 Aor. Act.) 

Singular. 



N. zvipag 


TVlpCCG-CC 


zvipav 


G. zvtyavz-og 


zv^pda-t]g 


zv\pavz-og 


D. zv\pavz-i 


zvxfjda-y 


zvxpavz-i 


A. zvtyavz-a 


zv\paa-av 


zv\pav 


V. zvtyag 


zv\paa-a 
Dual. 


zvtyav 


N. A. V. zvxpavz-s 


zmpda-a 


zvipavz-s 


G. D. zmpdvz-otv 


zvipda-aiv 
Plural. 


zvxpdvz-oiv 


N. zvtyavz-sg 


zv\paa-ai 


zv\pavz-a 


G. wtydvz-cov 


zv\paa-cov 


zvxpdvz-cov 


D. zvxpa-ai 


zv\pda-aig 


ZV\pU-Gl 


A. zv\pavz-ag 


zvxpda-ag 


zv\pavz-a 


V. zvipavz-eg 


zv\paa-ai 


zvxpavz-a 



In like manner decline the adjective nag, ndcsa, nav, all. 

155. — 3. TSTvep-cog, having struck (Perf. Act.) 

Singular. 



N. V. zezvty-w* 


-via 


-6g 


G. zezvcp-ozog 


-viag 


-ozog 


D. ZEZVCp-OZl 


-vice 


-ozi 


A. zezvcp-oza 


-viav 


-6g 


• 


Dual. 




N. A. V. zezvcp-ozs 


-via 


-oze 


G. D. zezvcp-ozoiv 


-viaiv 
Plural. 


-0701V 


N. V. ZEzvy-ozeg 


-vlai 


-oza 


G. zezvqj-ozcov 


-vicov 


-OZCOV 


D. ZSZVCp-OGl 


-viaig 


-6a i , 44-8. 


A. zezvcp-ozag 


-viag 


-oza 



156. — The participle in cog, after a Syncope (26*7), has the 
nominative and vocative cog, coaa, cog ; G. tozog, cooqg, azog t <fcc 



§48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TEKMINATIONS. 59 



§ 48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 

15*7. — Many adjectives of the third declension have but one 
form for the masculine and feminine, and are therefore said to be 
declined according to the common gender. They are declined 
throughout like nouns of the third declension, of the same termi- 
nation. The regular terminations of these are mv, rjv, ijg, ig, vg, 
and ovg (viz. compounds of novg) ; and they form the neuter ac- 
cording to the following — 

158. — RULES. 

1. Adjectives of the common gender in cov, r\v, 
7]g, form the neuter by changing the long vowel 
into its own short one ; thus, 

M. andF. N. 

N. GcocpQwv GwcpQOv prudent, G. Gcocpoov-og 

N. aQoyv aQQtv male, G. oqqev -og 

N. alTjd-rjg dXtj&sg true, G. dXq&E -og 

So also some in coq ; as, 
N. [leyuh'jTCQQ fisydXrjroQ ; G. fieyah'/zoo-og 

Note. But Teorjv, tender, usually has the feminine reoeiva, 
neuter teqsv. 

2. Adjectives of the common gender in eg and 
vg, form the neuter by rejecting g ; as, 

M. and F. N. 

N. ev^ccQig evxaoi G. ev%doi-tog 

N. adaxovg ddaxov G. dddxov-og 

3. Compounds of novg, a foot, have the neuter 
in ovv ; others in ovg have the neuter in ov ; as, 

M. and F. N. 

N. dinovg, oinovvy G. omoo-og, 100-1. 

fiovodovg, fiovodov, fiovod-ovtog. 

Note. It is probable that novq was originally noos ', whence Slnooq, 
N. Sinoov, contracted dinovq, 6lnovv\ and that the declension was after- 
wards changed from the 2d to the 3d, as was done also in yikwq, and 
%(j<j)q, from the ancient yiXv.o<;, and eyaoii. 



60 



IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 



§48. 



159. — Examples of adjectives of the common 
gender. 

2. a, rj dX^&^g, true. 

Singular. 

"N. aXf]&-f]g -r'jg 

G. dXfjd'-sog -eog 

D. aXrft-ii -si 

A. dlrfo-ia -set 

V. aXi]d--Eg -eg 

Dual. 

R". A. V. 

akri&-&8 -88 

G. T>. f 
altj&s'oiv -sow 
Plural. 
N. aXyft-t'sg -e'eg -e'a 

G. dlyd-ECQV -803V -8COV 

D. dlri&-86i -s'ai -sot 
A. dXrj^-t'ag -tag -ea 
V. dXi]&-8£g -e'sg -ia 

4. ahaxqvq, tearless. 

Singular. 

N. aduxQ-vg -vg -v 

G. dddxq-vog -vog -vog 

D. dddxjQ-vi -vi -v'C 

A. ddaxQ-vv -vv -v 

V. adaxQ-v -v -v 



-ov 

-ovog 

-on 

-ov 

-ov 



-0V8 

-ovoiv 

-ova 

-ovmv 

-oai 

-ova, 

-ova 



1. 6, fj 6o)cpqcov, prudent. 
Singular. 

N. GCQCpQ-CW -cov 

G. Gooyo-ovog -ovog 

D. GCQtyQ-OVl -ovi 

A. ewepQ-ova -ova 

V. GGO(pQ-OV -OV 

Dual. 
N. A. V. 

GG>CpQ-OV8 -0V8 

G. D. 

GCQCpQ-OVOlV -OVOIV 

Plural. 
"N. GocKpQ-ovsg -oveg 

G. GCQCpQ-OVCOV -OVCOV 
D. GCQCpQ-OGl -OGl 

A. Gcoyo-ovag -ovag 
V. Gooyo-ovsg -ovsg 

3. tvxciQiS, acceptable 

Singular. 
N. sv%ao-ig -ig 
G. 8v%do-ixog -irog 
D. ev^do-iti -vti 
» j 8v%dq-ita -via 

\ 8v%ao-iv -iv 
V. sv%ao-i -i 
Dual. 
N. A. V. 

8V%aQ-lTS -lt8 -VIS 

G. D. 
svyao-itoiv -itoiv -iroiv 
Plural. 
N. sv%do-iZ£g -itsg 
G. evxag-ircov -itoav 

D. SV%dQ-l6l -igi 

A. 8v%dQ-izag -vtag 
V. sv^dq-irsg -irsg 



-eg 
-eog 

-81 

-eg 
-eg 



88 



-801V 



-I 

-irog 
-vti 
-iy or 
-i 
-i 



-ita 
-itcov 

-UJl 

-vta 
-ita 



Dual. 

N. A. V. 

dddxQ-vs -V8 -V8 

G. D. 

ddaxQ-vniv -volv -vow 

Plural. 

N. dddxQ-veg -vsg -va 

G. ddaxQ-vmv -vcov -voay 

D. dddxQ-vGi -vgi -vgi 

A. dddxo-vag -vag -va 

V. dddxQ-veg -vsg -va 



§49. ADJECTIVES TO BE DECLINED. 61 

Note. In these examples, aXr t &r;q and aSot*Qvq are declined without 
contracting. The pupil may contract the concurrent rowels (120-2, and 
ISO), and make the necessary changes in the accents. 



§49. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

160. — Every adjective not ending in some of 
the regular terminations already mentioned, is ir- 
regular, — wants the neuter gender, — and is de- 
clined like a noun of the third declension ; thus, 

N. 6, r\ aqnaZ, 

G. tovy trig uonayog, &c. 

Obs. 1. The poets sometimes use the genitive and dative of 
such adjectives in the neuter. Sometimes the neuter is supplied 
by a derivative form in ov ; thus, donuxtixov is used as the neu- 
ter of aqna^ ; ftXcutxixov, as the neuter of §Xd^ t &c. 

Exc. 1. ixcov and dzxcov (by syncope dxcov), are declined with 
three genders, like participles (154-1) ; thus, 

N. ex-cov ex-ova a, ex-6v, 

G. ex-ovzog, ex-ovaqg, ex-ovtog, &c. 

Exc. 2. Msyag, great ; and noXvg, many, are irregular in the 
nominative and accusative singular. The other cases are regu- 
larly formed from the ancient nominatives fieydXog and noXXog, 
of the second declension ; thus, 





Singular. 




Singular. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


M. F. 


N. 


N. fisyag 
G. fieydXov 
D. fieydXco 
A. fieyav 


[leydXrj 
fieydXr/g 
fieydXrj 
fiEydlrjv 


fitya 
fieydXov 
fieydXcp 
fis'ya 


noXvg noXXr\ 
noXXov noXXtjg 
noXXo) noXXij 
noXvv noXXi\v 


TToXv 

noXXov 
rzoXXcQ 
noXv 



Dual. Dual. 

N. A. V. fisydXa), (xeydXa, fieydXco. \ noXXco, noXXd 7 noXXco, &c 
through the dual and plural, as in xaXog, 144. 

Note. Homer and other poets inflect noXvq regularly, Gen. 7ZoX(oq, 
Dat. noXi'i, <fcc. It was afterwards changed, in those cases in which it 
would not be distinguished from the same cases of noXtq, a rity. 

4 



G2 



NUMERALS. 



§ 50, 5L 



Obs. 2. Some substantives in ag and vg, inflected in the first 
declension, are called by grammarians, adjectives; as, vpQMJzijg, 
an insolent man ; TQavpariag, a wounded man ; but they are 
really independent of any other substantives in construction. The 
same observation may be applied to several other words, called 
adjectives of one termination. 



§ 50. ADJECTIVES TO BE DECLINED. 



xax-og, -?/, -ov, bad. 

rdl-ag, -aiva, -av, miserable. 

fiaQ-vg, -Eia, -v, heavy. 

r£Q-rjv, -r\v, -sv, tender. 

evatfi-tjg, -i]g, -eg, pious. 

fisXri-cov, -coy, ov, better. 

i([i?j-etg, -866a, -sv f honoured, 

adw-og, -og, -ov, unjust. 



azi-og, -a, -ov, 



worthy. 



quXoTtavQ-ig, -ig, -i, patriotic. 
nolv7i-ovg,-ovg,-ovv, many-footed. 
o, 7 [idxao, happy. 

@a&-vg, -eia, -v, deep. 
fi8i£-cov, -coy, -ov, greater. 



tyofisQ-og, -a, -ov, 
dya&-6g, -rj, -ov, 
6, 7] (JtaxooxEio, 
ta^-vg, -eia, -v, 
aalli-cov, -oov, -ov, 

cpil-og, -jy, -ov, 

flVtjfA-CDV, -(OV, -OV, 

adff-yg, -ijg, -tg, 
b, /} cpvyag, 
fovx-vg, -8ia, -v 
qadi-og, -a, -ov, 
aoiqiQ-Gov, -cov, ov, 



sonorous, 
formidable, 
good. 

long-handed, 
swift, 
more beauti- 

ful. 
friendly, 
mindful. 
unconquered 
an exile, 
sweet, 
easy. 



§51. NUMERALS. 

161. — Numeral adjectives are those which sig- 
nify number. In Greek they are divided into 
two classes, Cardinal and Ordinal. 

1. The Cardinal express numbers simply, or 
how many ; as, one, two, three, &c. 

2. The Ordinal denote which one of a number; 
as, first, second, third, &c. 

Distributives have no separate form in Greek. The meaning 
of these is expressed by the cardinal numbers, sometimes com- 
pounded with avv ; as, avvdvo, gvvzquq, <fec. ; bini, terni ; — and 
sometimes preceded by xaid, dvd, &c. 



§ 51. NUMERALS. 63 

162. 1. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

1. Elg, one, has the singular number only, and 
is thus declined : 

N. elg fiia tv 

G. ivog fitag ivog 

D. hi [ua evi 

A. eva piav ev 

In like manner decline the two compounds, 

ov8-eig, ovde-fiia, ovS-e'v, plur. ovd-eveg, -Efiiat, -eva, 
fiqd-eig, [in8e-[iia, [in8-ev, " ^iifi-eveg, -epiai, -eva, 

Obs. 1. From elg, one, is formed the adjective ezegog, either, 
one, other ; and from ovdeig, iirfieig, are formed ovdezeoog, fi?]8e- 
reoog, neither. 

Obs. 2. Elg is sometimes used for the ordinal TtQOjrog, as in 
Matth. 28. 1 ; Mark 16. 2. This is usually considered a Hebra- 
ism, but it is sometimes used by the Greeks also ; Herod, iv. 161, 
Thucyd. iv. 115. Also in Latin, Cic. Sen. 5 : " Uno et ocior/esi- 
mo anno? 

2. Ave), two, is properly dual ; it is alike in all 
genders, and is defective in the plural ; thus, 

Dual. Plural. 

N. A. dvco N. A. 

G. dvoiv, Attic bvelv G. dvcjv 

D. dvoiv D. 8vgi(v) 

Obs. 3. Jvo, two, is indeclinable ; i. e. it is the same in all 
genders and numbers ; apcpco, both, is declined like dvco, in the 
dual. 

3. Totlg, three, and Ttooaqtg, four, are plural 
only, and are thus declined : 



zgeig, three. 
N". zgeig zgelg Tola 

G. ZQMtiV ZQIODV ZQIWV 
D. ZQIGl ZQIGl ZQIGl 

A. zgeig zgeig zoia 



zeaoageg (ze'zzaneg), four. 

N. zeGGaoeg zeGGaoeg ztGGaga 
G. zeGGaocov zeGGagcov zeGGaoco 

D. TtGGClQGl ZtGGUQGl ZSGGaOGl 

A. ZEGGaqag ztGGaoag zsGGaoa 

4. The Cardinal numbers from ntvrs, jive, to 
txavov, a hundred, are indeclinable. 



64 



GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 



§52. 



5. After txarov, the larger numbers are regu- 
lar plural adjectives of the first and second declen- 



sions; as 



M. 


F. 


N. 




diaxoaioi 


Siaxoaiai 


diaxoaia 


two hundred 


ZQiaXOaiOl 

yfkioi 

dl6%lllOl 

fIVQIOl 

<$KJ[IVQ101 


TQICMOGIOU 

%lhai 

8ia%i'hai 

livQim 

diOflVQICU 


zgiaxoaia 

fjivQta 
oia{ivgia 


three hundred 
a thousand 
two thousand 
ten thousand 
twenty thousand 



Obs. 4. In the composition of numbers, either the smaller pre- 
cedes, and the two are joined by xai; or the greater precedes, in 
which case the xai is generally omitted: thus, nevze xal eixoai, 
or eixoai nevze, twenty-five ; neiinzog xai eixoazog, or eixoazog 
n(\inzog, twenty -fifth. When three numbers are reckoned to- 
gether, the greatest comes first, and so on in succession, with the 
conjunction xai ; as, vrjeg sxazov xal eixoai xal enzd, a hundred 
and twenty-seven ships. 

Obs. 5. Instead of the numbers compounded with eight or 
nine, more frequent use is made of the circumlocution evog (or 
fiiag) oeovzog, &c. ; thus, vtjeg fiiag deovaai eixoai, twenty ships 
wanting one, i. e. nineteen ships ; ezea dvmv de'ovza eixoai, twenty 
years wanting two, i. e. eighteen years. 



163. 



52. II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 



The ordinal numbers are formed from the cardinal. All un- 
der twenty, except second, seventh, and eighth, end in tog ; from 
twenty upwards, all end in oazog, and, in their inflection, are re- 
gular adjectives of the first and second declensions ; thus, 



TZQOJZOg 

(nqozeoog 
devzegog 
zgizog 

Obs. 1. In 



TZQCQZV 

Ttoozeoa 
devzeqa 
zqizv 

order to 



first 

first of the two) 

second 

third 



express 



TtQC&ZOV 

noozeoov 
devzeqov 

ZQIZOV, &C 

half, or fractional numbers in 



money, measures, and weights, the Greeks used words compound- 
ed of n\\ii, half, and the name of the weight, &c. (fiva, ofiolog, 
zakavzov), having the adjective termination or, iov, alov, append- 
ed to it, and placed before the ordinal number, of which the half 



53 GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 65 



is taken ; as, tqizov tjftiTalavzov, 1\ talents ; i. e. the first a talent, 
the second a talent, the third a half talent, and so of others. In 
like manner the Latin sestertius, 2 J asses by syncope from semis- 
tertius; the first an as, the second an as, the third a half as (ter- 
tius semis). 

From this must be distinguished the use of the same com- 
pounds in the plural, preceded by the cardinal number which, in 
hat case, mean simply so many half talents; thus, toia fjjjiir 
xalavza, not 2£ talents, but three half talents, or one and a half. 
Obs. 2. From the ordinal numbers are formed numerals in 
aiog, expressing "on what day ;" as, davzepaiog, on the second 
day ; 7QiTaivg f on the third day, &c. 



§53. THE GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 

164. — The Greeks used the letters of the alphabet in three 
different ways, to denote numbers. 

1. To express a small series of numbers, each letter was reck- 
oned according to its order in the alphabet; as, «, 1, 0, 2, e, 5, 
ca, 24. In this manner the books of Homer's Iliad and Odys- 
sey are distinguished. The technical syllable HNT (i]vx), will 
assist the memory in using this kind of notation ; for if the alpha- 
bet be divided into four equal parts, ij will be the first letter of 
the second part, that is *l ; v, of the third, or 13; and z of tho 
fourth, or 19. 

2. The capital letters were used, in denoting larger series of 
numbers, thus; 7, 1, 77 for ntvre, 5, A for 6Yx«, 10, 7/ for He- 
xazov, 100, X for %ihoi, 1000, and M for [ivqioi, 10,000. A 
large 77 round any of these characters, except 7, denoted five 
times as much as that character represented ; as, \j\ , 50 ; \m\ 
for 50,000. 

3. To express the 9 units, the 9 tens, and the 9 hundreds, the 
Greeks divided the alphabet into three parts ; but, as there are 
only 24 letters, they used g', called Emojiiov, for 6; ,5> called 
x6n7ia> for 90 ; and Q}, called oufim, for 900. In using this 
kind of notation, the memory will be assisted by the technical 
syllable ALP; that is, A\ denotes 1 ; /, 10 ; and / y , 100. It 
is to be observed, also, that all the numbers under 1000, are de- 
noted by letters with a small mark like an accent, over them ; 
and that a similar mark placed under any letter, denotes that it 
represents so many thousands. 



6$ 



GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 



§53. 



165.— TABLE OF NUMERALS. 





Cardinal. 


Ordinal 


1 


« 


r 


7lQ0)XOq 


2 


? 


Svo 


SfVXiQoq 


3 


V 


TQiTq 


x i) Iraq 


4 


o 


xiGGaqtq 


xhaqroq 


5 


i 


ft&vrt 


TltfiTtXOq 


6 


s' 


n 


exxoq 


i 


C 


Inrd 


t(3do[A,oq 


8 


n 


OXXOt 


oydooq 


9 


&' 


ivvia 


Bvvaxoq 


10 


i>' 


Mxa 


cHxaxoq 


11 


«*' 


evdexa 


ivdexaxoq 


12 


* 


dtodixa 


do)Sexaxoq 


13 


by' 


XQbGxaiSexa 


xqi,Gxai,Stxaxoq 


14 


bd' 


rtaaaQKTxaiSixa 


XiGGctQaxccbdexaxos 


15 


n' 


TZfVZiY.aidiy.a 


7Ztvxtxcud£xaxoq 


16 


*>S 


kxxaiStxa 


exxcudtxaxoq 


17 


>K 


tnxaxaidfxa 


knxaxaudexaxoq 


18 


ir\ 


bxxo)xalSixa 


bxxo)xabdexaxoq 


19 


&' 


ivvtaxaldtxct 


ivviaxabdixaxoq 


20 


X 


llXOGb 


iixoGxoq 


21 


xa 


tlxoGb fiq 


ilxoGxbq TtQortoq 


30 


K 


X(Jbdxovxa 


xqvaxoGxbq 


40 


t* 


xt(T<ja()dxovxa 


xtGGa^axoGxbq 


50 


V 


mvxi\xovx(X 


ntvxrjxoGxbq 


. 60 


i' 


kh'j/.ovxa 


e£rjxoGx6q 


70 





sfid'ojujxovxa, 


tfidofttjxoGxbq 


80 


7l' 


bydoi'jxovxa 


bytiotjxoGtbq 


90 


5' 


EWtvrjxovxa 


ivvfVfjxoGxbq 


100 


q 


eatarov 


BxaxoGxbq 


200 


g 


6\a/.6avov 


dicixoGiQGxbq 


300 


X 


XQiaxoauoi, 


XQbaxoGbOGxbq 


400 


V 


xiffffaQaxocnou 


xiGffaqaxoGbOGtuq 


500 


9 t 


7Hvxax6aioi> 


7tivxaxoGbOGx6<: 


600 


/' 


i%<xxoaioi 


k^axoGbOGxbq 


700 


tf 


inxaxoaioi 


knxaxoGvoGroq 


800 


b) 


bxxaxoGvob 


bxxaxoGbOGxbq 


900 


an 


ivviaxoGisOi 


ivveaxoGbOGxoq 


1,000 


a t 


yihob 


yvXiOGxbq 


2,000 


P, 


dvGylXvob 


dbG/b/.bOGXOq 


3,000 


V, 


rquGylhob 


XQbG/bhoGTOq 


4,000 


d\ 


xixqaxiG'/LXiOb 


xixqaxiG/bhoGXcq 


5,000 


t t 


TZtVXaXbGylXbOb 


7T{vray.t.G/bhoGxb<: 


6,000 


g t 


k^axvG'/ihot, 


ItaxvGXbhoGxbq 


7,000 


t t 


ETixa.xi>G/iXbOb 


InxaxiG'/iJioGToq 


8,000 


n, 


oydo/.t,G/ihob 


bydoxioyuhoGrbq 


9,000 


&, 


ivvtaxbG/iXbOi 


ivvia/.iGyihoGxoq 


10,000 


b l 


(AVQtOb 


[ll'QLOGTOq 


20,000 


x t 


SbG/AVQbOb 


6bGjuv(JbOGx6q 


50,000 


V, 


TtiVXaXbGfl VQbOb 


7ZlVXOLXbGnVQbOGt6q 


100,000 


Q. 


Stxa,XbG(.UiQbOb 


dtxaxbGfAVQbOGToq 


Thust 


he num 


ber 1853 is a, «' v /. 





§54. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 67 

OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS. 

166. — From the cardinal numbers are formed — 

1st. The Numeral adverbs; as, #4', twice, from dvo ; TQtg, 
thrice, from toeig; and from the others, by adding the termina- 
tion y.ig> mug, or rdxig ; as, ztaQaody.ig, e^dxtg, sxatovidxig, four 
times, six times, a hundred times. 

2d. Multiple numbers in nXoog, contracted nlovg ; as, oV 
nloog, two-fold; zom'koog, three-fold ; zetoaTiXoog, four-fold. 

3d. Proportionals in nkdaiog ; as, TQinldoiog, three times as 
much ; zeiQaTiXdoiog, four times as much. 

4th. Substantives in at,*, «floc, which express the name of the 
several numbers ; as, fiovdg, Gen. -ddog, the number one, unity ; 
dvdg, the number hoo ; dexdg, the number ten ; eixdg, the num- 
ber twenty ; zoiaxdg, the number thirty, <fcc. 

Note. The substantive numerals are commonly employed to express 
the higher numbers; thus, dir.a /xvyiadtq, 100,000; kxaxov fivQtdd'ti;, a 
million. Sometimes the smaller numbers, added to the larger, are 
likewise expressed by substantives ; thus, 517,610, nivxr^/.ovxa. /ti^tct- 
Stq xai /Aid., /chadic; xe into, xai nqo^ kxa.xovxa.8io, ti xai dixou;. 

5th. The Distributives, answering to the question, in how 
many parts? are formed in £«; as, dtyu, tor/a, lizoaya, ntr- 
za%a ; in two parts, in three parts, <fcc, and connected with 
these are such adverbs as, tqi^, trebly, tql%ov, in three places, ho,. 

Obs. When other parts of speech are compounded with nu- 
merals, the first four assume the following forms, viz. : povo-, one ; 
oV, two ; TQi-, three ; zeroa-, four ; as, (lovoxtocag, dr/.towg, 
ZQiTiovg, zezodnovg, one-horned, two-homed, three-footed, four- 
footed. 



§ 54. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

167. Adjectives have three degrees of compari- 
son, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

168. The Positive expresses a quality simply ; the Compara- 
tive asserts it in a higher or lower degree in one object than in 
another, or, than in several taken together ; and the Superlative 
in the highest or lowest degree compared with several taken sep- 
arately ; thus, " gold is heavier than silver ; it is the most pre- 
cious of metals." Hence, those adjectives only can be compared 
whose signification admits the distinction of more or less. 



68 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



55. 



The superlative in Greek, as in Latin and English, often ex- 
presses only a very high degree of the quality, without implying 
comparison, and may be called the superlative of eminence. 



§55. GENERAL RULE. 

169. — The comparative degree is formed by 
adding noog to the positive ; and the superlative^ 
by adding rarog ; thus, 



Positive. 



Superlative. 
{laxdo-zarog 
evvovG-tarog 
xaxorovG-vazog 
drckovG-xarog 



XaQiEG-ratog 



Comparative. 
[idxao fiaxdo-TSoog 

svvovg svvovG-reoog 

naxovovg xaxovow-Teoog 

anXoog-dnlovg drikovG-TEoog 

170. — SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Adjectives in sig reject i; as, 

%aoieig %aQisa-t£Qog 

2. Adjectives in og reject g ; and also, after a 
short syllable, change o into co ; thus, 

OQ&6g OQ&O-TEQOg 

dixcuog dixcuo-TEoog 

TtovrjQog Tzovqoo-ieoog 

■&avfA,aat6g ftavfiaGto-tEoog 

dijlog 8ql6-T£Qog 

og after a short syllable : 

cocpog GOCpco-TSQog Gocpco-tarog 

xsvog xevco-iEQog xsva-zaTog 

cpofcoog cpofiEoeo-zEQog cpofisoco-TaTog 

qjavEQog qtavsooj-Tsoog qiavEgco-tarog 

%alE7i6g %al£7i(6-t£Qog %a}.£7ico-tatog 

Obs. The change of o into go is made, to prevent the concur- 
rence of four short syllables. Hence o, after a doubtful vowel 
considered long, remains unchanged ; but if considered short, the o 
is changed into co ; thus, ivtifiog has irnfiozEQog, and iG%vo6g has 
iGXVQotEQog ; because i and v are considered long; but ay q tog has 
dygicoTEoog, and ixccvog, ixavcozEoog, &c, because the t and a are 
considered short. 



OQ-do-Tatog 

dixaw-tarog 

novriQo-Taxog 

%av\iaGxd-taTog 

dtjXo-ratog 



§56. COMPARISON BY imv AND tazog. 69 

3. Adjectives in ag, qg, and vg, add to the neu- 
ter gender; as, 

uilag [i&.aiva [itlav; {leXdv-ZEQog, &c. 

Evae^g ewefirjg evoefieg', EVGEpEG-ZEQog, &c. 

svQvg evqelol evqv', EVQv-zEQog, &c. 

4. Adjectives in av and r\v add to the nomina- 
tive plural masculine ; as, 

aopQcov N". P. acpQOvsg acpgovsG-Ttgog, &c. 

ZEQIJV " TEQEVeg ZEQEVE6-ZEQ0g, &C. 

Exc, But nincov makes rrs7zaiZ£Qog, &c, and mow, — mozEqog, 
mozazog. 



§56. COMPARISON BY tW AND ujzog. 

171. — Some adjectives are compared by Icov 
and iOtoq) viz., 

1. Some in yog, derived from substantives. 
These form the comparative and superlative, not 
from the adjective, but from the substantive ; 
thus, 

i%&()6g, inimical, from £/#6?, enmity, £%&iow, Ex&ujzog. 

oix^Qog, compassionate, olxzog, compassion, olxziow, oixziozog. 
olig%q6g, base, ah%og, baseness, ato"/tW, cu6%tGrog. 

[jaxQog, long, pijxog, length, ^ximv, fiyxiazog. 

Also xaXog, beautiful, has xaXXicov, xdXXiazog, as if from xdX- 
Xog, beauty. 

2. Some in vg are compared both ways ; as, 

@a&vg, deep, §a&vzEQog, fia&vzazog. 

and fia&icov, fid&iazog. 

' In like manner compare §Qadvg, slow; za%vg, swift; na%vg 
thick; yXvxvg, sweet ; axvg, quick; &c. 

3. Qccdiog, easy, has qct'lcov, qatarog ; or, with c 
subscribed, (taav, qaorog. 

Note. Some of these, and of others compared in this way, are occa- 
sionally found compared by rtgoq and raroq. Tayvq also has a com- 
parative ■&d(T(ro)v, Att. #aTTwr. The comparatives in wv are declined 
tike aoxpQwv, 159-1. 



70 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. § 57, 58. 



172.— § 57. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

The following adjectives are irregular in their 
comparison; viz., 

afiewcov aya&ojrzazog 
ageicov agiazog from Jlgyg, Mars 
fielziav fis'Xziozoc from fiovlofjiai, I wish 
aya#6g,good j*Q*™™> *Q**™o S horn xgazvg, brave 

Iwiow IcpGtog iroin Ago, for mla, I wish 

icpEQtarog \ 
ysQiGTog V from cpeQco, I bear 
cpEQTiozog ) 
xaxicov xdxiazog 
%eiqg)v %doiGzog 
(isyag, great fiei^oov [isyiazog 
noXvg, many nleicov nhiustog 
ilaxvg, small iXdaacov iXa%i6Zog 
pixQog, little tjaaw, or [mew, or [iixgozsQog ; [Mxaorazog 



xaxog, bad -j 



§ 58. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 

173. — Some adjectives in the comparative and superlative de- 
grees, have no positive, but are formed from — 

1. nouns; as, 



fiaailsvg 


a king 


@aoilevt£Qog 


fiaailtvzazog 


xs'oSog 


gain 


xegdimv 


xtgdiczog 


Beog 


God 


■fremzeoog 




ylinrrig 


a thief 




xleTZTlOTCCTOg 


xvdog 


glory 


xvdicov 


xvdtxyzog 


xvmv 


a dog 


xvvzeoog 




nlrjxzng 


a striker 




TzhjxTiarazog 


nbtr\g 


a drinker 




noziGzazog 


giyog 


cold, rigor 


Qiyimv 


qiyiazog 


CpCOQ 


a thief 




(pcagzazog 




2. 


pronoun; as, 




avtog 


self 




avzozazog 




3. 


participle; as, 




iQQm[ievog 


strong 


i$Q(ojiwsGteQog 


iQoojfisve'azazog 



59. 



DIALECTS OF COMPARISON. 



71 



f 




4. ADV 


erbs; as, 

3 / 


avco 




up 


avco-ztoog -tazog 


acpaQ 




immediately 


ayao-zEoog 


iyyvg 




near 


j tyyv-zEoog j -zazog 
\ ?yy-i(ov \ -uszog 


k%(o 




out 


i^(6-T8Qog -zazog 


XUZ(0 




down 


xar(6-T8Qog -veczog 


EGG) 




in 


iooo-zeoog -zazog 


07110(0 




back 


omGOJ-zsoog -razog 


n soar 




beyond 


rreoai-rtoog -zazog 


7z6qO(0 




far 


7ioQQ(6^ZEQog -zazog 


JTQGjt 




early 


Tzotoiai-vEoog -tazog 


V\\.'l 




highly 


vxpuszog 






5. prepositions; as, 


71Q0 


before 


7tQ0-TEQ0g 


nowazog whence Tzowzog 


V7ZEQ 


over 


vmo^reoog 


vniq^zazog whence vnazog 


114 


. — Some comparatives 


and superlatives are again com- 


pared ; 


as, 








X(Ot(OV 


better 


).(OlZ£QOg 




[l£l(Ol>, 


less 


fAElOTEOOg 




QKG3V, 


easier 


ZO QCCOZEQOV 




y.alXi(ov, more beautiful 


zb xalhazEQOv 




yEQtiav, ) 

A S v vjorse 


j ZO XEQEIOTEQOV 

\ and x&q6teqov 




yeioxoi 


t ) 




XtigiGTog, worst 


7\ yElQlGZOZEQH 




xvdtozog, most glorious 


xvdtazazog 




iXdxiozog, least 


ElaxiQzozEoog 




7ZQ(OTog, first 


Tiomzlazog 



175. — Some words ending in vg, of the first declension, are 
compared; thus (see 160, Obs. 2), 

vpQiGZ?'ig, an insolent man vfigiGzo^tEoog vfioiGzo-zazog 
7ileovt'>izvg, an avaricious man nlsovExzio-zazog 



170.— §59. DIALECTS OF COMPARISON. 

1. The Attics compare many adjectives in og, ijg^ and £, by 
-uszegog -iGzazog, -alzEoog -akazog, and -sozeQog -sazazog ; as, 



72 


THE PRONOUN. 


§60. 


XdXog, loquacious 
qjiXog, friendly 
by Syncope, 
anovdaiog, diligent 


XaXiG-zsoog 
ytXai-zsoog 
(piX-zsQog 
GTZovdaiEG-zsoog 


-zazog 

-zazog 

-zazog and (plXujzog 

■zazog 


ay&ovog, not envying 
TtaXcuog, old 


acp&ovEC-ZEQog 
naXai-zEoog 


■vazog 
-zazog 


yEoaiog, an old man 
OLQTia%, rapacious 
7tXsop8xzrjgy avaricious 
yevdqg, false 


ysoai-zsoog 
aQ7tayi6-zEoog 
7tXsovE}izia-ZEQog 
ipsvdta-ZEQog 


-zazog 
-zazog 
-zazog 
-zazog 



2. Dialects of particular comparatives and superlatives, are, 
for xqeiggcov, I. and D. xqeggmv, better; ielqmv, P. £«(>£iW, I. 
dat. xt'oni, ace. x s QV a y n o m - pl ur - X 8 QV 8 S » — pEtXcov, I. jtt«£ooy, D. 
pdGGow, greater; with others which may be learned by practice 
in reading. 



§ 60. THE PKONOUN. 

177. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun. 

178. — Pronouns may be divided into Personal, 
Possessive, Definite, Peflexwe, Reciprocal, De- 
manstrative, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite, 
Of these the Personal only are substantives ; the 
rest are adjectives. 



I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

179. — The Substantive or Personal Pronouns 
are syd, I, of the first person ; ov, thou, of the sec- 
ond ; and ov, of himself, of herself, of itself, of the 
third (56) ; they have the same accidents as nouns 
(55) ; are of all genders ; and, in construction, 
take the gender and number of the noun for 
which they stand. They are thus declined : 



60. 



THE PRONOUN. 



73 



iyfij, L First Person, M. or F. 



Singular. 
N. iyco 

G. ipov or [iov 
D. ifiot or pot 
A. i\d or [it 



Dual. 

N. A. vmi or yco 
G. D. vmv or yaw 



Plural 

n. ^r^ 

G. ?/ j UOM' 

D. ^/-uy 
A. ^t«s 



<?z/, thou. Second Person, M. or F. 



Singular. 
N. V. cv 
G. aov 

D. (TOt 
A. G8 



Dual. 

N. A. V. Gcpwi or (jgoco 
G. D. crqpGwV or dgpcpi' 



A. (78 

ot>, of himself j of herself of itself 
M., F., or N. 



Singular, 

G. ov 
D.oT 

A. I 



Dual. 

N. A. <T<pa)/, dqpco 
G. D. ocpootv 



180. — OBSERVATIONS. 



Plural. 
N. V. vfielg 
G.vfiow 
D. vfiiv 
A. r/i«^ 

Third Person, 

Plural. 

N. ffgoft^, Neut acpea 
G. cygpcw 

D. 6(pl0l 

A. (ygpa?, Neut ffgp/a 



1. The monosyllable forms pov, pot, pi, are always enclitic, 
21-23, and have their accent thrown back on the preceding word. 
They are never governed by a preposition. 

2. In the dual, the forms vco and acpm are sometimes written 
vq> and crqpQ). 

3. The third personal pronoun, like sui in Latin, wants the 
nominative singular, and is commonly used by the Attic prose 
writers in a reflexive sense ; i. e. it refers to the subject of the pro- 
position in which it stands ; or of the foregoing, if the second be 
sufficiently connected with it. Thus used, it is translated of him- 
self, of herself of itself &c. In Homer and Herodotus, and the 
Attic poets, it is more frequently used as the pronoun of the third 
person, for the nominative of which they use the relative og ; as, 
og ecprj, he said. This pronoun, however, is but little in use, the 
definite avrog, 182, and the reflexive iavzov, 183, being used in- 
stead of it. The nominative (not now in use) appears to have 
been anciently t, from which was derived the Latin is, A neu- 
ter form of the nominative and accusative plural, ocpea, occurs in 
Herodotus. 



74. POSSESSIVE AND DEFINITE PRONOUNS. § 61, 62. 

§61. II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

181. — The Possessive Pronouns denote pos- 
session, and are derived from the substantive pro- 
nouns. 

1. In signification, they correspond to the genitive of their 
primitives, for which they may be considered as a substitute ; 
thus, 6 adeXcpbg ifiov, the brother of me, and 6 ifxbg adslcpog, my 
brother, are synonymous expressions. 

2. Inform, they are regular adjectives of the first and second 
declensions, and are declined like nalog, 144. They are derived 
as follows : 



From ifis 


comes 


ipog 


"% 


-ov 


my 


OS 




Gog 


6 ll 


60V 


thy 


8 




og 


-v 


-OV 


his 


vm 




1>(ott8Q-0g 


-a 


-OV 


our, i. e. of us two 


ocpm 




GCpmvz8Q-og 


-a 


-OV 


your, i. e. of you two 


^{i8ig 

V(A8ig 

oysig 


Doric 


rifi8T8Q-og 
v(ie'z8Q-og 

OCp8T8Q-Og 

ocp-og 


-a 
-a 
-a 

-n 


-OV 
-OV 
-OV 
-OV 


our 

your 

their 



Obs. To this class also belong qfisdanog, one of our country ; 
vfiedanog, one of your country. But nodanog; of what coun- 
try ? more properly belongs to the interrogative,' — and dlXooa- 
nog, one of another country, to the indefinite pronouns. 



§62. III. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. 

182. — The Definite Pronoun avrog is used to 
give a closer or more definite signification of a per- 
son or thing. 

This pronoun has three different significations. 

1. In the nominative it adds the force of the English self to 
the word to which it belongs ; as, lya avrog, I myself ; gv av- 
rog, thou thyself; avrog, he himself: so also, in the oblique 
cases, when it begins a clause ; as, avrbv ieogaxa, I have seen the 
person himself, 

2. In the oblique cases, after another word in the same clause, 



\es. 



REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 



75 



!; is used for the third, personal pronoun, and signifies him, her, 
t, them ; as, ov% iagaxag avzov, thou hast not seen him. 

3. With the article before it, it signifies the same ; as, 6 av- 
bg avdownog, the same man. 

Obs. In the last sense when the article ends with a vowel, it 
ften combines with the pronoun, forming one word ; thus, rav- 
ov, for zov avzov ; zavzy, for zfj avzrj ; zavzd, for za avzd, &c. 
Vhen thus combined, the neuter ends in ov as well as o. The 
ombined zavzrj and zavzd must be carefully distinguished from 
avzy and zavza, parts of. ovzog, 185. The former has the Spiri- 
ts lenis (') over the v, the latter has not. 

4. The definite pronoun avzog is thus declined. 





Singular. 


Dual. 




Plural. 




r. 

r. 


> t r f 

avz-og -v -o 
avz-ov -%g -ov 


N. A. 
avz-co -d -co 


N. 
G. 


avz-ol -at 
avz-av -mv 


r 

-a 

-(OV 


). 


avt-o) -v -(j> 
avz-ov -r t v -6 


G. D. 
avz-oiv -aXv -olv 


D. 
A. 


avz-oig J aXg 
avz-ov g -dg 


-oig 
-a 




In the same manner are declined : 










aXkog alXn alio 

tf v <r 

og n o 




another 








who, which 






ixeivog i 


y.sivij ixeivo 




that 





§ 63. IV. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 

183. — Reflexive Pronouns are such as relate 
o the subject of the proposition in which they 
tand. 

1. The Reflexive pronouns are formed from the accusative 
ngular of the personal pronouns, with the oblique cases of avzog. 
hey are epavzov, of myself; amvzov, of thyself; iavzov, of 
imself; and are thus declined. 

Singular. Plural. 



G. 


iavz-ov 


-ng 


-ov 


G 


lavz-cov 


-wv 


-mv 


D. 
A. 


savz-qt 
mvz-ov 


i 

-r\v 


-0 


D. 
A. 


iavz-oig 
iavz-ovg 


-aig 
-dg 


-oXg 
-d 



2. In the same manner are declined ipavzov and asavzov, 
ithout the neuter gender, but, in the singular number only. In 



76 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 64, 65. 

the dual and plural, the parts of the compound are used sepa- 
rately ; as, 7][M»v avtmv, of ourselves. 

3. Homer never uses the compound form even in the singu- 
lar ; but, i{is avtov ; ae avtov, &c. 

4. The contracted forms aavtov and avtov, <fec, are often 
used for a&avtov and savtov. 

5. Sometimes in the singular, and often in the plural, mvtov 
is used by the Attics in the first and second, as well as in the 
third person. They are all sometimes used as reciprocals, 184 ; 
and, in some grammars, they are so denominated. 

6. In these compounds, instead of av, the Ionics have cov, and 
retain s before it ; thus, ipeavtov, csoavtov, &c, for ifiavtov, &c. 



§64. V. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN. 

t 

184. — The Reciprocal Pronoun indicates a mu- 
tual relation between different persons, expressed 
in English by the phrase one (mother. 

This pronoun is formed from dXXog, wants the singular, and 
is thus declined : 

Dual. Plural. 



G. dXXyX-oiv -aiv -oiv 

D. dXXijX-oiv -aiv -oiv 

A. dXXtjX-m -a -co 

The Dual is seldom used. 



G. dXXrjX-cov -cov -cov 
D. aXXrjX~oig -aig ~oig 
A. dXXijX-ovg -ag -a 



§ 65. VI. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

185. — The Demonstrative Pronouns are such 
as point out with precision a person or thing al- 
ready known. They are, 

°<Z "8 'fig [ ^* 5 ' ^e latter, the one. 

ixsivog ixeivr] ixetvo that, the former, the other. 

1. "Ode, yds, tods, this, is simply the article 6, r\, to, rendered 
emphatic by the enclitic ds annexed through all its cases, 140-3. 
'ExeTvog is declined like avtog, 182-4. 



66. 



RELATIVE PRONOUN. 



77 



Ovrog, like the article, takes the initial i in 


the oblique cases, 


[ is thus declined : 








Singular. 




N. V. ovrog 


avrtj 


rovro 


G. rovrov 


ravzqg 


rovrov 


D. rovrcp 


ravrr} 


TOVZ(p 


A. rovtov 


zavryv 
Dual. 


rovro 


N. A. V. rovroj 


ravra 


rovrco 


G. D. rovroiv 


zavratv 

Plural. r 


rovroiv 


N. V. OVTOl 


avrai 


ravra 


G. rovrcov 


rovrav 


rovrcov 


D. rovroig 


ravraig 


rovzoig 


A. rovrovg 


ravrag 


ravra 



Obs. The correlatives roaovrog, roiovrog, and rr[kwoviog, 
ave either ov or o in the nominative and accusative singular 
euter; thus, 

N. roaovrog roaavrt] roaovrov, or roaovro 

G. roaovrov, <fcc. 

2. Among the Attics, the demonstratives were rendered em- 
ihatic by adding i to the termination ; as, ovroai, rovrovi, rov- 
coi, &c. But when the final vowel is a, or o, or e, it is dropped, 
nd i put in its place ; thus, ode, rovro, ravra, with the emphatic 
are written bdi, rovri, ravri When ys or 8e follows the de- 
nonstrative, the i is placed after it, e. g. rovro ye with i becomes 
ovroyi This suffix always draws the accent to itself. A sim- 
lai emphasis is expressed in Latin by annexing the syllables met, 
e, pte, ce ; as, egomet, tute, meapte, hicce (Lat. Gr. 118-4; 121, 
)bs. 4 ; 123-3). The i added by the Attic and Ionian writers to 
he Dative Plural, however, is not emphatic but merely euphonic. 

3. The emphatic i is annexed also to the compounds of ovrog, 
tnd a few of the correlatives ; such as roaovrog, roiovrog, rijXi- 
;ovrog, roaog, &c, making roaovroai, &c. 



§66. VII. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

186. — The Eel ati ve Pronoun is one that le- 
ates to, and connects its clause with, a noun or 
pronoun going before it, called the antecedent. 



78 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 



§G 



1. The relative bg, ;;, b, who, tvhich, that, is declined like o 
tog (1 82—4). It is rendered emphatic by adding the encli 
syllable neo ; as, ban ay, tjnEQ, bnao, 4(K)-20. 

2. The Ionic and Done writers, and the Attic tragedians, : 
stead of bg, use the article o, >/, to, as a relative. 

3. Instead of bg, the compound pronoun bang is used as 
relative after nag, or any word in the singular expressing 
indefinite number ; and baoi, after the same words in the plur* 
as, nag bang, every one who ; ndvtag baoi, all who. 



§67. VIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

187. — The Interrogative Pronoun is used 

asking a question ; as, rig inoirjos ; Who did it 

1. The interrogative tig, ti ; who? which? what? has t 
acute accent on the first syllable, and is thus declined : 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 



N. rig rig, ti, 
G. tivog, tivog, tivog, 
D. tin, tin, tivi, 
A. tiva, tiva, ti. 



N. tivag, tivag, tiva 
G. tivoov, tivwv, tiva 
D. tiai, tiai, tiai 
A. tivag, tivag, tivv 



N.A. 
tiva, tiva, tiva, 

G. D. 
tivoiv, tivoiv, tivoiv. 

In the same manner decline brig, ovtig, and firjtig. 

Ob$. Instead of the genitive and dative tivog, tivi, we oft 
find a secondary form, tov, tq) ; 

2. The interrogative tig has its responsive bang, which is th 
used : tig anoiqaa ; who did it ? om oida bong anoiqaa, I km 
not who did it. The responsive bang is declined as follows, ac 
as will be perceived, disregards the usual rul^s of accentuation 

Singular. 



N. 
G. 
D 
A. 


bang 
ovtivog 

CptlVl 

bvnva 


\anvog 

rjtivi 

rjvtiva 

Dual. 


o,ri 

ovrivog 
qnivi 
b,ri 


N.A. 


(bnve 


anve 


wnve 


G.D. 


olvnvoiv 


aivnvoiv 


olvnvoiv 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 



79 



Plural. 



N. 


omvsg 


amveg 


aziva 


(>. 


oornvcov 


(tiVTIVOiV 


mvzivoSv 


D. 


oiatioi 


aictim 


oiarvai 


A. 


ovativug 


aarivag 


aziva 



l. Iustead of oatig, Homer uses bzig, declined like rig as 
re, and instead of the genitive and dative ovzivog, q>zivi, we 
the secondary forms bzov and bzcp ( Obs. above). 
t. There appears to have been, among the ancient Greeks, an- 
r interrogative pronoun, nog, ni), no, and its responsive bnog, 
bno, which have become obsolete, except in two cases, now 
[ adverbially ; viz. nov, where ? nrj, in what way ? and hence 
responsives bnov and ony. From these are formed the inter- 
itive noztoog, -a, -ov, ivhich of the two ? and its responsive 
tEQog, -a, -ov, ivhich of the two ; with several other adverbs 
adjectives still in use ; each interrogative having always its 
i responsive, — the one being the correlative of the other ; as, 



INTERROGATIVES. 

noiog, of what kind ? 



RESPONSIVES. 



noaog, of what number ? 
nijh'xog, of what age ? 
noztQog, 'which of the two ? 
. noig, how ? 



onoTog, of what kind, 
bnoaog, of what number, 
bnrfluxog, of what age. 
bnozeoog, ivhich of the two. 
bnwg, how, &g. ; thus, 

r IrjXtxog iazi ; of what age is he ? ovx oida bmjXixog, I know 
of what age. In the same manner the responsives are used 
Lout an interrogation preceding ; as, intld&ezo onoTog ?jv, 
forgets of what kind he was" To these also may be added 
anog, of what country ? 



§ 68. IX. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

188. The Indefinite Pronouns are such as de- 
:e persons or things indefinitely. They are, 



tg 


rig 


XI 


some one. 


eiva 


delva 


deTva 


some one, such a one. 


'XXog 


aXXn 

£T£QU 


alio 


another. 


TZQOg 


Zzsqov 


other, a different one, another. 



80 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. §69 

To which may be added the following negatives ; viz., 

ovng ovng ovn \ 

ovdei'g ovdeuia ovdsv I 

/ , r , >no one. 

firing p?jng p/n 1 

fiqdeig [M]de[iia [irjdev J 

1. The indefinite rig has the grave accent on the last syllable, 
to distinguish it from tig interrogative, which has the acute ac- 
cent on the first ; the former is enclitic (21), the latter is not. 

2. The indefinite dsiva, some one, of all genders, and always 
with the article prefixed, is declined like a noun of the third de- 
clension ; thus, 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 



N. deiva 
G. deivog 
D. deivi 
A. deim 



N.A. 
dews 

f G.D. 
dewoiv 



N. dsTvsg 
G. deivcov 
D. 



A. detvag 

/Jslvcx. is sometimes indeclinable ; as, G. rov deiva, D. t<p 
dsiva. jLXkog is declined like avzog, 182-4 ; i-teoog, like (pave- 
o6g, 145. 

Obs. 1. All words used interrogatively are also used indefi- 
nitely, but generally with the accent changed ; thus, 

INTERROGATIVES. INDEFINITES. 

nocog ; how great ? how many ? noaog, of a certain size or num- 
ber, 
noiog ; of what kind ? noiog, of a certain kind, such. 

nr[kUog ; how old ? how large $ nnlixog, of a certain size or age. 



189.— §69. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

1. Besides the interrogatives and responsives (187-4), the 
Greek language has likewise special correlative pronouns, each 
pair of which has a mutual relation. The latter of the two is 
expressed in English by as. 

zoaog oaog (Lat. tantus, quantus), so great, as. 

zolog olog (Lat. talis, qualis), such, as. 

tnXixog tjlixog of the same age, as ; of the same size, as. 

2. When the correlation is more expressly designated, express- 
ing just as great as, exactly as great as, the former pronoun 



§70. 



DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUN. 



81 



(tocog, toT.og, ryXiKog) has tie or ovzog attached to it, and the 
latter has on (from onr^) prefixed ; as, 

roaoo8& ) t f roioade ) < . rvXinoaSe ) < ^ / 

y onoaog - y onoiog ', ~ y ontikixog 

toaovzog \ zoiovzog ) rrjuxovzog ) * 



190.— §70. DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. 




3 Eyc6, I. 


Ionic. 


Doric. iEoLic. Poetic. 


S. N. 


iyiirv, iymvrj. 


eyo), eyo)V. 


'yu>. 




iyo')ya, iyowya. 


B. io), mya. 




G. ifino, i/uio. 


iixtv. 


B. ifiovq. 


ifii&iv. 


i/u,t&ev. 








D. 


in Iv. 


e/iov, B. ifiiv. 




D. N. A. 


a,ui, ctftfif. 






P. N. riuitq. 
Gr. 7}(ltWV. 
D. 


a/xiq, a/ifitq. 




a/i/iiq. 


duorv, ufxLwv. 


aafio)V, a/uftmv. 


rmtZwv. 


dfiiv, ct/ilv. 


Ctf (/■(!>, Ct/tflUV, 


TJfllV. 






aufteatv. 




A tifiictq. 


Uficiq, dui, a, fii.it. 


a.fi/A,aq, dfi/niaq. 


fjfitiaq, uu/it 




J£v, Thou. 


a n.v. 


tv, rvvrj, rvya. 


rovvrj. 




Gr. atlo, aio, oi&tv. 


rev, revq, reovq. 


atv, oiQ-iv 


aiio&tv. 


D. 


rot, riv, ri'iv. 


rlvt]. 




A. 


re, rv. 


riv, retv. 




D N. A. V. 


y/ne, vfi/it. 






P. N.V. Vfiitq. 


v/xeq, fififiiq. 




Vfifif, Vfiftfq. 


G. vfiiojv. 


vitorv. 


Vft/uo)v, v/uju,io)v. 


VjU,ilo)V. 


T>. 


Vfllv, I/AIV. 


V/Ufll, V/JL/JlUV, 

vnfitaw. 




A. v/*&aq. 


Vfioiq, iifxi, Vfifxi. 


v(AfA.aq, Ififiiaq. 


v/idctq. 



Ov, of Himself, &c. 



8. 


(jr. no, oto, trio, 
to, t&tV. 

D. lor. 


IV. 


t&ev, yi&tv. 


t'io&tv 

£01. 




A. filv. 


viv. 


filv, viv. 


te, aq>£ 


D. 


N". A a (pie. 


<T(po)f, aqua. 






P. 


N. ffyeeq. 
G. aqiio)v. 


o~q>eq. 




G(peieq. 
(jqii'nov. 




D. fftpiv, <j<fi- 




aacpi. 


q>iv. 




A. aq>iaq. 


acpi, xpi. 


0~q>iq, affqie. 
f*iv, viv. 


ayeiaq 
aq>i. 



82 THE VEIIB. § 71. 

Obs. 1. fiiv and vlv are used for the accusative in all genders 
and. numbers ; so also is 6q)s, among the poets, i. e. for avx-oy, 
-?jv, -o, and avt-ovg, -dg, -d. 

Obs. 2. The adjective pronouns are inflected in the different 
dialects according to the models of the first and second declen- 
sions. Other peculiarities may be learned by practice ; as, for 
ijfiETSQog, -a, -ov, our ; D. dfiog, -d f -bv ; for vpeTtoog, D. vfiog ; 
for oqisrEQog L D. ccpog ; for ovzivog, A. orov, D. ortv, I. or«o, P. 
orrsco ; for cpziviy A. orcp, I. otscp ; for atwa, A. art at, D. aaaa ; 
for tlvog and tivbg, A. fro£>, 1. ito, D. ret; ; for tm and tmy, A, 
rfp, I. T«cp ; for zwcov, I. reW ; for rtb"t, I. r/owe ; for tivd, A. 
osrrce, D. ao~(7a ; for cog, arj, gov, thy, D. zeog, tad, zeov ; for og, 
?j, bv, I. «6V, «/, eov, Aw, &c. : this form occurs only in the singu- 
lar number. 



§71. THE VERB. 

191. — A Verb is a word used to express the 
■act, being, or state of its subject. 

1. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and In- 
transitive* 

2. A Transitive verb expresses an act done by- 
one person or thing to another. In Greek, it has 
three forms, Active, Middle, and Passive, 195. 

* These' two classes comprehend all the verbs in any language. 
According to this division, Transitive verbs include those only which 
denote transitive action ; i. e. action done by one person or thing to 
another, or which passes over, as the word signifies, from the actor to 
an object acted upon ; as, " Caesar conquered Gaul," or " Gaul was con- 
quered by Caesar." Intransitive verbs, on the other hand, include all 
those which have nothing transitive in their meaning — nothing passing 
over from one person or thing to another, and consequently no relation 
to any thing beyond their subject which they represent in a certain 
state or condition, and nothing more. — Instead of the terms active and 
neuter formerly used to denote these two classes of verbs, the terms 
Transitive and Intransitive are here preferred, as being more expressive 
and appropriate, and in order to relieve the term "active" from the 
ambiguity created by using it, both as the designation of a class of 
verbs, and also, as the mme of a particular form of the verb called the 
active voice. To the latter of these only, it is now applied in this work. 



§ 71. THE VERB. 83 

3. An Intransitive verb expresses being, or a 
state of being, or action confined to the actor. It 
is commonly without the passive form. 195, Obs. 2. 

192. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The use of the verb, in simple propositions, is, to affirm. 
That of which it affirms is called its subject, which, if a noun or 
pronoun, is in the nominative ; but when the verb is in the infi- 
nitive, its subject is in the accusative. 

2. The verbs that express being simply, in Greek, are three, 
dpi, yvvofiai, and v7zaQ%cQ, signifying in general to be. The state 
of being expressed by intransitive verbs, may be a state of rest ; 
as, evda, I sleep ; or of motion ; as, y vavg nfo'ei, the ship sails ; 
or of action ; as, T^fc'/co, / run. 

3. Transitive and Intransitive verbs may always be distin- 
guished thus : a transitive verb always requires an object to com- 
plete the sense ; as, qpi-Aco os, I love thee ; the intransitive verb 
does not, but the sense is complete without such an object ; as, 
yfiatj I sit ; TQtjm, I run. 

4. Many verbs considered intransitive in Greek, are translated 
by verbs considered transitive in English ; as, avddvco, I please ; 
vTzaxovcQ, I obey ; a7ZtL&co f I disobey ; l^nobCQco, I hinder ; 
ivoyltw, I trouble ; <fcc. In strict language, however, these and 
similar verbs denote rather a state than an act, and may be ren- 
dered by the verb to be and an adjective word ; as, I am pleasing, 
obedient, disobedient, &c. 

5. Many verbs are used, sometimes in a transitive, and some- 
times in an intransitive sense ; as, qy&ivco, tr. / destroy, intr. / 
sink, or decay ; OQitdco, tr. / stir up ; intr. / rush. This change 
from a transitive to an intransitive sense, however, is generally 
indicated by a change from the active to the middle form of the 
verb ; as, yaivov, active tr. I shew ; (pawoficu, mid. / sheiu my- 
self, i. e. intr. I appear. (See 195, JVote.) 

6. Verbs usually intransitive become transitive, when a word 
of similar signification with the verb itself is introduced as its ob- 
ject ; as, iQE%(aiis.v tov dycwa, let us run the race. 

V. When a writer wishes to direct the attention, not so much to 
particular act, as to the employment or state of a person or thing, the 
object of the act, not being important, is omitted ; ' and the verb, though 
transitive, assumes the character of an intransitive. Thus, when we 
say, "The boy reads," nothing more is indicated than the present state 
or employment of the subject "boy," and the vub has obviously an 



84 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. §72. 

intransitive sense : still an object is implied. But when we say, "The 
boy reads Homer," the attention is directed to the object "Homer," aa 
well as to the act, and the verb has its proper transitive sense. 



§ 72. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

193. Though the division of verbs into Transitive and In- 
transitive, comprehends all the verbs in any language, yet, from 
something peculiar in their form or signification, they are charac- 
terized by different names expressive of this peculiarity. The 
most common of these are the following, viz. : Regular, Irregu- 
lar, Deponent, Defective, Redundant, Impersonal, Desiderative, 
Frequentative, and Inceptive. 

1. Regular Verbs are those in which all the 
parts are formed from the Hoot or stem, accord- 
ing to certain rules. §§ 93-97, and 106, 107. 

2. Irregular, or Anomalous Verbs, differ in 
some of their parts from the regular forms. §§112 
116, 117. 

3. Deponent Verbs under a middle and pas- 
sive form, have either an active or middle signifi- 
cation. § 113. 

4. Defective Verbs are those , in which some 
of the parts are wanting. 

5. Redundant Verbs have more than one 
form of the same part. 

6. Impersonal Verbs are used only in the 
third person singular. § 114. 

7. Desideratives denote desire, or intention 
of doing. §115,1. 

8. Frequentatives express repeated action. 
§ H5, 2. 

9. Inceptives mark the beginning or continued 
increase of an action. § 115, 3. 



§ 73 74. INFLECTION OF VEKBS. — VOICE. 85 

§ 73. INFLECTION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

194. — To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

1. The Voices in Greek are three, Active, Mid- 
dle, and Passive. 

2. The Moods are five ; the Indicative, Subjunc- 
tive, Optative, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

3. The Tenses, or distinctions of time in Greek, 
are seven, the Present, the Imperfect, the Futwre, 
the Aorist, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and, in the 
passive voice, the Paulo-postfuhwe, or Future- 



4. The Numbers are three ; Singular, Dual, 
and Plural. 

5. The Persons are three ; First, Second, and 
Third. 

6. The Conjugations, or forms of inflection, 
are two ; viz., the First, of verbs in co ; and the 
Second, of verbs in [it. 

Ob$. Some verbs appear in both forms ; as, Shxvvco and 8eiy.vv- 
iu, I show. Some verbs are partly of the first conjugation, and 
partly of the second ; thus, fiaivw, I go, of the first ; 2d Aorist, 
tpqv, I went, from ffifu of the second; yiyvcooxoj, I know ; 2d 
Aor. fyvcov, I knew, from yvapi of the second. Such verbs as 
these, however, though regular in each form, are generally reckon- 
ed among the irregular verbs. 



74. VOICE. 



195. — Voice is a particular forrr of the verb 
which shows the relation of the subject, or thing 
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

The transitive verb, in Greek, has three voices 
Active. Middle, and Passive. 

5 



86 voice. § 74. 

Obs. 1. In all voices the act expressed by the transitive verb is 
the same, and in all, except sometimes the middle, is equally tran- 
sitive; but in each, the act is differently related to the subject of 
the verb, as follows : 

1. The Active Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acting on some object ; as, rvTvrco at, 
I strike you. 

2. The Middle Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acting on itself, or in some way for it- 
self; as, TvnTO^iaL, I strike myself ; €/8Xai//d/u?]v 
tov TioSa, I hurt my foot / cov/jodjur/v ltctiov, I 
bought me a horse, 

3. The Passive Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acted upon ; as, rvTiTOjuac, I am 
struck; 6 novo, sjSXdcpitrj, the foot — his foot — my 
foot — was hurt. 

Obs. 2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, do not admit a 
distinction of voice. They are generally in the form of the ac- 
tive voice, frequently in that of the middle or passive ; but, what- 
ever be their form, their signification is always the same; as, 
■&vtj(jxcQ or &vijGX0(A,(U, I die. 

Obs. 3. The Middle voice, in Greek, is so called, because it 
has a middle signification between the active and the passive, im- 
plying neither action nor passion simply, but a union, in some 
degree, of both. Middle verbs may be divided into Five Classes, 
as follows : 

1st. In middle verbs of the first class, the action of the verb is 
reflected immediately back upon the agent ; and hence verbs of 
this class are exactly equivalent to the active voice joined with the 
accusative of the reflexive pronoun; as, Xovm, I wash another; 
Xovopai, I wash myself; the same as lovm sfiavtov. 

2d. In middle verbs of the second, class, the agent is also the 
remote object of the verb, or he with respect to whom the act 
takes place ; so that middle verbs of this class are equivalent to 
the active voice with tne dative of the reflexive pronoun (IfiavTcp, 
csavzcp, savzcf) ; as, aioeiv, to take up (any thing), sc. for another, 
in order to transfer it to another ; alouG&ai, to take up, sc. in 
order to keep it for one's self, to transfer it to one's self Hence 
verbs of this class carry with them the idea of a thing's being 
done for one's self. 



§74. voice. 87 

3d. Middle verbs of the third class express an action performed 
at the command of, or with regard to, the subject, and is expressed 
in English by to cause. In other words, this class may be said to 
signify, to cause any thing to be done ; as, yoayco, I write ; yqa- 
qpOjuat, / cause to be written ; I cause the name, as of an accused 
person, to be taken down in writing by the magistrate before whom 
the process is carried, or simply, / accuse. 

4th. The fourth class of middle verbs, includes those which 
denote a reciprocal or mutual action ; as, G7isvde6\rai, to make 
libations along with another, to make mutual libations, i. e. to 
make a league ; dialvead'GU, to dissolve along with another, tc 
dissolve by mutual agreement. To this class belong verbs signi- 
fying " to contract" " to quarrel," " to contend," &o. 

5th. The fifth class comprehends middle verbs of the first 
class, when followed by an accusative, or some other case ; in 
other words, it embraces all those middle verbs which denote an 
action reflected back on the agent himself, and which are, at the 
same time, followed by an accusative, or other case, which that 
action farther regards ; as, dvapvuGdai n, to recall any thing to 
one's own recollection. 

Note. From the reflected nature of this voice, many verbs, which 
are transitive in the active voice, may be rendered by an intransitive 
verb in the middle voice ; as, ffti/J.o), I send (viz. another) ; axi)J.ouav, 
I send myself, i. e. I go ; boyi'Zo), I provoke another ; boyito^ui,, I provoke 
myself, i. e. I am angry ; 7ifi&o>, I persuade another; nti&oncu, I per- 
suade myself, i. e. I yield, or obey. In many instances, however, the re- 
lation to self is not so clearly distinguishable. This is particularly the 
case with the later writers, as Plutarch, Herodian, <fec. In the writings 
of the ancients, Herodotus, Xenophon, and others, the distinction between 
the active and the middle voice is much more strictly observed. 

Obs. 4. The future middle has often an active, and sometimes, 
especially among the poets, a passive sense. 

Obs. 5. The present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, 
and the future-perfect middle, are the same as in the passive, or, 
more strictly, they are the passive forms in a middle sense. When 
the middle aorists are unusual or wanting, their place is supplied 
by the passive aorists in a middle sense. Sometimes, when the 
middle aorist is used in the ordinary sense, the passive also is used 
as a middle, but in a peculiar sense ; as, middle atEilaa&ai, to 
array one's self ; passive azaXijvat, to travel. ■ 

Obs. 6. The 2 Perfect, and 2 Pluperfect Active (called by the 
ancient grammarians the perfect and pluperfect middle) are of rare 
occurrence, and, when used, are completely of an active significa- 
tion. In a few instances, it is true, they incLne to an intransitive 



88 moods. § 75 

and reflexive sense ; as, mnotda, I have persuaded myself, i. e. 
1 am confident. But still it is certain that, in all cases in which 
a verb can have a middle sense, that sense is expressed, in these 
tenses, only by the perfect and pluperfect passive in their middle 
sense. 



§ 75. MOODS. 

196. — Mood is the mode or manner of express- 
ing the signification of the verb. 

197. The moods, in Greek, are five, namely ; 
the Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, 
and Infinitive. 

1. The Indicative Mood asserts the action or 
state expressed by the* verb simply as a fact ; as, 
cpiXtco, I love j ygdcptc, lie writes. 

Obs. 1. The indicative, in Greek, being used in dependent, as 
well as in independent clauses, resembles the English indicative, 
and is often used where the subjunctive would be used in Latin ; 
as, ytyvcoaxsig rig iazi ; do you know who he is ? Latin,. An scis 
qui sit ? 

2. The Subjunctive and Optative Moods re- 
present the action or state expressed by the verb, 
not as a fact, but only as a conception of the mind 
still contingent and dependent: that is, they do 
not represent a thing as what does, or did, or cer- 
tainly will exist, but as what may, or can, or 
might exist. 

The Subjunctive represents this contingency 
and dependence as present; — the Optative, as 
past 

Obs. 2. The subjunctive and optative moods involve a com- 
plex idea including — 1st and chiefly, the general idea of liberty 
or power, expressed by the English words, may, can, might, &c, 
fi-om which the secondary ideas of contingency and futurity are 
derived; and 2d, the modification of this idea by the meaning of 



§ 75. moods. 89 

the verb common to all the moods ; thus, He may, or can, ex- 
pressed in Greek by the subjunctive form, represents the person 
lie in possession of the general attribute of liberty or power. Com- 
bine with this the meaning of the verb, and then we have the 
general attribute expressed by the subjunctive form, restricted to 
the particular action or state expressed by the verb ; as, he may 
write ; he can wal£ ; he may be loved. 

Obs. 3. The future indicative is of^en used in a subjunctive, 
and also in an imperative sense ; and hence, in the futures, there 
is neither subjunctive nor imperative mood. See Syntax, 699-5 
and 705. 

Obs. 4. The contingency of an action conceived of as past, is 
not absolute, but relative to the knowledge of the speaker; thus, 
in the expression, yeygoicpr}, he may Jiave written, the act, if done, 
is past, but of the fact, the speaker is uncertain. 

3. The Impekative Mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits ; as, ygdcpn, write thou; lrco % 
let him go, * 

Obs. 5. In the past tenses the Imperative expresses urgency 
of command, expedition, or completion of action ; as, tzoi/jgov, 
have done. In the perfect, moreover, the idea of permanent and 
completed action is implied ; as, i/i{leflh'jG-d'ta, let him have been 
cast, i. e. let him be cast speedily, and effectually, and continue so ; 
r\ &voa xexXsiGxrco, let the door be shut, and kept so. 

Bern. The future indicative, the subjunctive, and the infinitive, 
are sometimes used imperatively. See Syntax of these moods. 

4. The Infinitive Mood expresses the meaning 
of the verb in a general manner, without any dis- 
tinction of person or number; as, ypdcpsiv, to 
ivrite ; ytyqacp'tvac, to have written / yqd(pt6&ccc, 

to be written. 

Obs. 6. Besides the common use of the infinitive, as in Latin, 
it is completely a verbal noun, of the neuter gender, 714. 

Obs. 7. Hence the Greek infinitive supplies the place of those 
verbal nouns called gerunds and supines, in Latin, 717, 718. 

Obs. 8. The infinitive, with a subject, is usually translated as 
the indicative, § 175. 

Obs. 9. The imperfect and pluperfect exist only in the indica- 
tive. 



90 THE TENSES. §76 

§ 76. THE TENSES. 

198. — Tenses are certain forms of the Verb 
which serve" to point out the distinctions of time. 

The Tenses in Greek are seven, — the Present, 
+he Imperfect, the Future, the Aorist, the Per- 
fect, the Pluperfect*, and, in the Passive, the Fu- 
ture-perfect or Paulo-post future. 

Rem. In some verbs, the perfect and pluperfect active, the aorists in 
all the voices, and the future in the passive voice, have two different 
forms, usually distinguished as first and second, but of the same signifi- 
, eation. The second future has no existence in the active and middle 
voices ; that which was so called by the ancient grammarians, is only 
an Attic form of the first §101, 4 (1). 

I. The Present tense expresses what is going 
on at the present time; as, y()d(pcj y I write, I am 
writing. • 

Obs. 1. The present tense is used, to express general truths ; 
as, £a)tf iQS%ei, animals run. In historical narration it is used 
with great effect for a preterite tense. 

II. The Imperfect tense represents an action or 
event as passing, and still unfinished, at a certain 
past time ; as, eygacpov, I was writing (when he 
came). 

Rem. This tense corresponds in meaning and use to the past 
progressive in English, and the imperfect in Latin. 

Obs. 2. From its expressing the continuance of an action, this 
tense is frequently used to express what was customary, or con- 
tinued from time to time; as, 6 i7i7toy.6fi.og zov mnov etqi@e, 
xul ixrzvi^e Ttaaag fjfitQag, the groom kept rubbing and cur- 
rying the horse every day. 

Obs. 3. For the same reason it is used instead of the aorist 
to express a past action, without reference to any specified time. 
When the action is continued, and not momentary, and when 
actions of both kinds are mingled in a narration, the continued 
action is often expressed by the imperfect, and the momentary by 
the aorist; as, B^t'dQaps xou xa&vlciy.TEi, He ran forth 
(the aorist,) and continued barking at them (the imperfect). 
Tovg (ih ovv TzeXzaatag idt^avzo oi fiaQftaQoi, xal i[id%ov 



§ 76, THE TENSES. 91 

to- ittettf fyyig J t aar, oi ott7.it ra ttnaTzorro, xcu oi nekzaatou 
Bvdvg ei 7i or to. The barbarians received (aorist) the peltostce, 
and fought (import.) with them. But when the heavy-armed 
soldiers were near, they turned (aorist), and the pdtastce imme- 
diately pursued them (imperf.). 

Obs. 4. When the action represented by the imperfect as be- 
gun and continuing in past time, does not succeed, or fails to be 
completed, it expresses only the beginning of an action, or the 
attempt to accomplish it; as, lQlaqyog $k tovg Grouziocnug 
efiia^sTO it'vai, Clearchus attempted to force the soldiers 
to go. 

III. The Future tense expresses what will take 
place in future time ; as, yqdipoo, I shall or tvill 

write. 

Bern. The future tense corresponds to the simple future in 
Latin and English ; and, in the passive voice, has two forms called 
the first and second. 

Obs. 5. Other varieties of future time are expressed by means 
of auxiliary verbs. See 199-1. 

IV. The Aorist represents an action or event 
simply as past; as, tyqaxpa, I wrote. 

Rem. This tense, in all the voices, has two forms, called the 
fi,rst and second. It corresponds in meaning to the past tense in 
English, and the perfect indefinite in Latin. When the time to 
which the imperfect and pluperfect refer, is manifest from the 
context, the aorist is often used instead of them. 

Obs. 6. From the indefinite nature of this tense, it is used by 
the Greeks to express what is usually or always true ; and is ren- 
dered by the English expressions, ' usually, 1 4 to be wont 1 i to 
use ;' as, Tag rm> cpavlav avvn&tiag oXiyog yqovog dit'Xvas, A 
short time commonly dissolves tlie confederacies of the wicked. 
JZQjy.Qdrng idtdaZe zovg fia&rjzag afUG&i, Socrates was wont 
to teach his disciples without any charge. In this signification 
however, it differs from the imperfect (Obs. 2), inasmuch as the 
aorist denotes what is always customary ; the imperfect, what 
was customary during a specified period of time. 

Obs. 7. As the aorist does not, like the imperfect, express con- 
tinuance, it is often used to express momentary action, and that 
in the same construction in which the imperfect is used to ex- 
press continued action (Obs. 3). 



92 THE TENSES. §76. 

K B. Though in the paradigm of the verb the full form of both the 
first and second aorist is usually given, it must be observed that when 
the first aorist is in use, the second is usually wanting, and vice versa. 
In a very few words only, are both forms to be found, and even in these, 
the two forms for the most part belong to different dialects, ages, or 
styles. 

V. The Perfect tense represents an action or 
evenl as completed at the present time, or in a 
period of time of which the present forms a part ; 
as, ysyQacpa, I have tvritten. 

Hem. In some verbs, this tense, in the active voice, has two 
forms called the Perfect and Second-perfect. It corresponds in 
meaning and use to the present-perfect in English, and the per- 
fect definite in Latin. 

Obs. 8. This tense implies that at or in the present time, the 
act expressed by the verb is completed, but does not indicate at 
what point or period of time prior to the present it was completed. 
Thus, ydygacpa r\v iTZunoXfjr, I have written the letter, does not 
say when the letter was written, but only that it is now written. 
Hence it is, that this tense connects the action, either in its com- 
pletion, or, in its continuance as a completed act, with the present 
time ; thus, ysyd^xa, in Greek, means not only, / have been 
married (without saying when the event took place), but that the 
married state still continues, i. e. / am married. Hence the per- 
fect is generally used to denote a lasting or permanent state or an 
action finished in itself, and therefore often occurs in Greek, 
where, in English, we use the present; as, dfi^i^i^vxag, thou 
protectest (i. e. thou hast protected and still continuest to protect). 
The continued force of the perfect accompanies it through all the 
moods; as, tmov zijv ftvqav xexXsiG&ai, they gave directions 
for the door to be shut, and to be kept so ; 6 [itv At^t//? ovrog ig 
rbv nvoicpleyt&ovza ipPepitja&G), Let this robber be cast into 
the Pyriphlegethon, and continue there. 

Obs. 9. In several verbs, the perfect tense is always used to 
denote only the finished action, whose effect is permanent, and 
therefore, in English, is translated by the present of some other 
verb, which expresses the consequence of the action expressed by 
the Greek verb. Thus, xalm, I name, perfect passive XExXn- 
fiat, I have been named, and continue to be so, but commonly 
rendered, / am named, or my name is. So also, from xtaouai, 
I acquire for myself, xs'xTrjfiai, /possess (i. e. I have acquired, 
and the acquisition continues mine) ; [ivdoficu, I call to my re- 
collec tion ; \il e'[a v r<[iai, I remember. 



§ 77. THE TENSES. 93 

VI. The Pluperfect represents an action as 
completed at or before a certain past time; as, 
iytyqcMptLv, Iliad written (some time ago). 

Rem. This tense, like the perfect, in the active voice, has two 
forms called the Pluperfect and Second-pluperfect. In both, its 
meaning is the same, and corresponds to the pluperfect in Latin 
and English. 

Obs. 10. The pluperfect bears the same relation to the per- 
fect, that the imperfect does to the present ; and hence whenever 
the perfect is rendered by the present (Obs. 9), the pluperfect 
will of course be rendered as the imperfect ; as, de'doixa, I fear, 
idedoixeiv, I feared. 

VII. The Future-Perfect, or Paulo-post-Future, as it is 
sometimes called by grammarians, is, both in form and significa- 
tion, compounded of the perfect and future, and denotes, 

1. The continuance of an action, or state, in itself, or conse- 
quences * as, // Tzohrsia zslt'cog xexoGfju'jGETcu, The city will con- 
tinue to be completely organized ; yeyQaipezai, He shall con- 
tinue enrolled. In thus expressing continuance, it agrees in sig- 
nification with the perfect, and hence, 

2. It is the natural future of those perfects which have ac- 
quired a separate meaning of the nature of the present ( Obs. 9) ; 
as, Xilemrca, he has been, and continues left, i. e. he remains ; 
Paulo-post-F. lelelxperai, he will remain; xexrvficu, I have 
acquired and continue to retain, i. e. / possess ; Paulo-post-future 
x£xr;/(70(ttat, I shall possess. 

3. It is frequently used to intimate that a thing will be done 
speedily ; as, cpoa£e xcu n engager at, speak and it shall be done 
immediately. 



199.— §77. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE 

TENSES. 

1. Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, and Fu- 
ture; and in each of these divisions an action may be represented 
either as incomplete and continuing, or as completed at the time 
ppoken of; thus, 

5* 



94 THE TENSES. §77 

-p j Action continuing ; as, yQucpw, I write or am writing. 

resent, -j ^ ct j on completed ; as, yeygaya, I have written. 

p j Action continuing ; as, fygayov, I was writing. 

( Action completed ; as, iyeygdcpeiv, I had written. 

( Action continuing ; as, ygaxpco, I shall write. 

Future. < Action completed ; as, yeyo'dycag saouou, I shall 



have written. 

Of these six divisions of time, it will be observed, that all ex- 
cept the last are expressed by distinct forms or tenses of the verb ; 
and this last is also expressed by a distinct form in the passive 
voice, called the Paulo-post-future. It may also be noticed that 
in each of these three divisions of time, by means of an auxiliary 
verb and the infinitive, an action may be represented as on the 
point of beginning ; thus, 

Present. ptXlco ygacpeiv, I am about to write. 

Past. e'fiellov ygacpeiv, I was about to write. 

Future. iielXyoco ygacpeiv, I shall be about to write. 

2. Besides these, the Greek has the advantage of a separate 
tense under the division of past time, to intimate simply that the 
action is past without reference to any particular point of time at 
which it took place, and hence is denominated the Aorist, i. e. inde- 
finite. This tense is rendered into English by the past tense, and 
into Latin, by the imperfect and perfect tenses in an indefinite 
sense. 

3. The tenses, divided as above into three classes, in respect 
of time, are farther, with regard to their termination and use, 
divided into two classes or series, which may be denominated the 
Chief or Primary, and Secondary tenses ; thus, 

Chief or Primary. Secondary. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Perfect. Pluperfect. 

Future. 1 Aorist. 

Future-perfect, or P.P. Fut. 2 Aorist. 

The chief tenses are employed in the direct address, to express 
actions as present or future. The secondary are used in the reci- 
tal of these actions as past ; and hence are sometimes denomi- 
nated the Historical Tenses. 

4. In the English expression of the moods and tenses, <fec, great 
precision cannot be expected Their signification often varies accord- 
ing to the conjunctions and particles with which they are joined, and 
hence, a corresponding variet}' of translation becomes necessary; In 
consequence, also, of the number of independent forms being greater iu 



g 78. AUXILIARY VERBS. 95 

the Greek verb than in the English, it is necessary to express certain 
tenses and moods, in the former, by a circumlocution in the latter; and 
sometimes, in order to give the precise idea of the Greek tense, a to- 
tally different construction must be adopted in the English sentence by 
which it is translated; thus, having no imperative in the past tenso 
in English, the full force of the imperative forms, in the past tenses in 
Greek, must either be host in the translation, or preserved at the 
expense, often, of a clumsy circumlocution. (197, 06s. 5.) In like 
manner, if we were required to give a strict translation to an aorist 
participle, according to the idiom of our language, we must use,' not a 
participle, but a tense of the verb ; thus, tovto 7io^;o-(xq outfjlfriv, ie, 
commonly rendered, having done this, he departed; when, in fact, it 
6hould be, when he did this, he departed. The ordinary rendering of the 
moods and tenses is the same in Greek as in Latin. This, as well as 
peculiarities of uaage, is fully illustrated, §§75, 76. 



§78. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

200 — Although the Greek language is richer than any other in 
independent forms, nevertheless a circumlocution is frequently made 
use of, by means of the auxiliary verbs ttvcu, xi^niv, vnoLoxuv, i/uv, 
&c, in connection with a participle or infinitive, partly to supply defi- 
cient, or to avoid inharmonious forms; partly to strengthen the signi- 
fication; and partly to express, with more minuteness and precision, 
the time and manner of action or state expressed by Hie verb; thus, 

1. The subjunctive and optative in the perfect passive, are generally 
formed with nvcu and the perfect participle; the independent forms 
being rarely used. The same construction is sometimes used in the 
active voice. 

'1. To express a purpose of doing, or the proximity of an event, /<t7- 
/.<->, .'H/.w, and tOi'/.i,), with the infinitive, are used; as, 6,n fiiXXiui ).i- 
ytw, whatever you are about to say. 

:;. Continuance, or a permanent state, combined with the various 

circumstances of commencement, simple existence, priority, energy, or 

'/, is expressed by yivoitcti, tifii, vnctq/u), y.i'oio, t/io, rrj'/avw, 

with a participle ; as, iyivtro artf^oj/rov aTttOTakuivo^, there was a man 

sent. 

4. The completion of an event is expressed by dui, with a past par- 
ticiple. With such a participle, tiui in the past tense, is equivalent to 
the pluperfect, but is much more emphatical ; as, roiq av/.oqidvTaq rrjq 
noHnoq ?)v Swbtaq, he was after driving the informers from the city. 
In like manner, tao.uat, in the future, with a past participle, expresses 
the future-perfect in the indicative; the subjunctive and optative of 
which is supplied from the aorists and perfect ; as, ntTToitjuivov tarou, 
it shall ha vi' been done, or it shall be done quickly. 

5. Anticipated performance is expressed by q&avio or 7tooq>&d.vw, 
with a participle ; as. HivriOtrTca ^Ociefat ri dqaoavrtt; tj 7ia&th>, they 
conspire to do somethhtg to avoid suffering, 

6. Secrecy, so as to escape not"onlv'the knowledge of others, but 
even a person's own consciousness, is expressed by Xav&otvo), with a 



96 PAKTICIPLES. § 79. 

participle ; as, eka&ov twkq Uvvaoavriq ayyilovc, some persons enter- 
tained angels unawares. 

1. A variety of other circumstances are expressed by joining appro- 
priate adjectives and participles, with dfil ; as, qxxviooq r\v d-vorv, he 
sacrificed openly. 

8. Strong and earnest desire is expressed by the imperfect or second 
aorist of 6q>ilXo>, agreeing with its subject, and commonly followed by 
the infinitive ; the particle tfaf is sometimes joined with it, and some- 
times not ; as, Mi] 6(pikov vt>xav, I wish that I had not conquered. AL& 
oytXov [A,tZvai, Would to God I had stayed. 

9. Imperious duty or necessity is expressed by verbal adjectives in 
rioq (202), either agreeing with their substantives, or, what is more 
usual, having their agents in the dative, and governing their objects as 
the verbs do from which they are derived ; as, 6 aya&oq fiovoq tv/iq- 
i&oq, the good man alone must be honoured. 

10. In some cases, there appears to be a pleonasm in the use of cer- 
tain auxiliaries, where there is really none ; for by analyzing the 
expressions, jwe shall find every word having its own distinct force ; 
thus, imtv ilvai InvXa&oixivoq, is incorrectly translated, forgetting will- 
ingly. The full force of the words may be expressed in English thus 
willing to be after forgetting — according to the ancient Celtic idiom. 
(See No. 4; also Construction of the Participle, § 177-JV.) 



§79. PARTICIPLES. 

201. — Paeticiples are parts of the verb, and, 
without affirmation, express its meaning considered 
as a quality or condition of an object ; as, 

■Jjl&s {jIstzojv, he came seeing. 

at kg y.dzood-ev myvsi avrov, standing below he praised him. 

Participles are varied like adjectives, by gender, number, and 
case, to agree with substantives in these accidents. If the idea 
of time be separated from the participle, it becomes an adjective. 

Every tense in Greek, except the imperfect and pluperfect, has 
its participle, — a circumstance which gives the language a decid- 
ed advantage over the Latin, which has no present participle pas- 
sive, nor past participle active. 



§ 80. VERBAL OR PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES IN rog 
AND tiog. 

202. — The Greeks have verbal adjectives, which, both in signi- 
fication and use, resemble participles. They are formed by adding 
the syllables tog and tiog to the first root of the verb ; thus, 



§80. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 97 

Root. Verbal Adj. 

Xfyco, I say Xey tog Xexzog, said, 

ygaqico, I write yqacp tog ygantog, written. 

(piXem, / love (pile tiog cpilriieog, to be loved. 

Those derived from liquid verbs add tog and riog to the sec- 
ond root; as, 
zeivo), I extend, 2d R. rav- rsog, t«t/o?, to be extended. 

Note. In those derived from pure verbs, the vowel preceding the ter- 
mination is sometimes lengthened, sometimes not ; thus, from y J.e'w, the 
adjective is q>t?.t]tioq ; but from algio), aiQitoq. 

Obs. 1. The verbal adjectives in zog have commonly a pas- 
sive signification, and either correspond to the Latin perfect par' 
ticiple passive ; as, noiqrog, factus, made ; yyzbg, aggestus ; otqe- 
Tirog, flexus ; or, they convey the idea of ability and capacity, 
expressed by the Latin adjectives in His ; thus, ooarog, visibilis, 
vuible; axovarog, audible, &c. Frequently, however, they have 
an active signification; as, xaXvnzog, concealing ; ii£fi7Tt6g f blam- 
ing, &c. 

Obs. 2. Those in rt'og correspond to the Latin future partici- 
ple in dus, and convey the idea of duty, necessity, or obligation ; 
as, ydrjttog, amandus, who ought to be loved ; noreog, bibendus, 
" which ought to be drunk." 

Obs. 3. The verbal rt'ov, in the neuter (among the Attics 
more commonly rs'a in the plural), corresponds to the Latin ge- 
rund ; thus, nortov (Attic norm) iazi, bibendum est ; noXefiTjjsa 
e67i, bellandum est. 

Note. For the construction of these adjectives, see Syntax, § 147, 
Rules L and EL 

203. — ACCENTS OF THE VERB. 

In verbs, the accent is placed as far from the 
end of the word as the quantity of the final sylla- 
ble will permit (22 <fc 24). 

204. — EXCEPTIONS AND VARIETIES. 

1. Monosyllables, if long, are circumflected ; as, eo, elg, q>rjg, 
§r lt for %. 

2. A long syllable after the characteristic, unless followed by a 
long syllable, is circumflected — 

1st. In the active, and the middle voice in the future of liquid 
verbs ; as, amon, 07iEoeig, (jtzeqeiVj (jftsQovfiai, <fec, be- 
cause contracted for aneoEO), <fec. 



98 CONJUGATION. § 81. 

2d. In the passive voice, in the subjunctive of the aorists ; and 
in the subjunctive present of verbs in fit ; as, zvyd-ojy 
-rjg, y — zvitoi, TVrtijg, &c. — ttd'CO i tiO~m(iai. 

3. The third person of the optative in oi and at has the acute 
accent on the penult; as, zervcpoi, aqtoai, except in the futures, 
No. 2— 1st. 

4. The imperatives, iXd-8, eind, evgt, ids, Xafie, have the accent 
on the final syllable ; but the imperative, 2 aor. middle, 2d person 
singular, circumflects the final syllable ; as, tvtzov — except yevov, 
toanovj ivEyxov. 

5. The infinitive of the 2 aorist active circumflects the final 
syllable ; as, rvnuv. 

The infinitive of the 1st aorist active, 2d aorist middle, both 
aorists passive, all the perfects, and the infinitives of the active 
voice in the 2d conjugation, have the circumflex on the long pe- 
nult, and the acute on the short. 

6. The participles of the 2d aorist active, of the present active 
of verbs in [u, and all ending in cog or eig, have the acute accent 
on the final syllable ; as, tvtzcqv, lazag, didovg, rsrvqjcog, Tvy&Eig. 

The participles of the perfect passive, have the acute accent on 
the penult ; as, zezv^fievog. 

*l. Elfii and cprjfJil have the acute accent on the final syllable 
in the indicative (except the 2d sing.) ; thus, iazi, cpqoiy &c. 



§81. CONJUGATION. 

205. — The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several voices, 
moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, according to 
a certain order. 

206. — Of regular verbs, in Greek, there are two 
conjugations ; viz., the first, of verbs in co ; and the 
second, oi verbs in /m. 

207. — Verbs of the first conjugation, in the ac- 
tive voice, end in co, and in the middle and pas- 
sive, in ojuca. 



§ 82. THE KOOT. 99 

ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN CO. 

208. — Verbs of the first conjugation consist of 
the following parts ; viz., 

1. The root or stem, which is unchanged, except 
as modified by the rules of euphony ; and, 

2. Those parts which, by their changes, distin- 
guish the voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and per- 
sons. These parts are the tense-sign, the augment, 
and the terminations. 



§ 82. 1. THE ROOT. 

209.— 1. The Root is that part of the verb 
which remains unchanged throughout, except as 
required by the rules of euphony, and serves as 
the basis of all the other parts. 

2. The final letter of the root marks the char- 
acter of the verb, and is therefore called the char- 
acteristic ; it is either a vowel, or a mute, or a 
liquid. 

When the characteristic is a vowel the verb is 
called pure ; — when a mute, the verb is called 
mute; — and when a liquid, the verb is called 
liquid. 

3. In regular verbs, the characteristic is the 
letter next the termination in the present indica- 
tive ; as, y, in Xsyco ; tv, in rpaxco ; t, in cpcXbco. 

Exc. But if of two consonants the last is r or 
a liquid, the first is the characteristic; as, n, in 
tvxtco and /liccptttco ; /n, in rk/nvco. ' 

FINDING THE ROOT. 

4. Rule. Strike off from the present indicative 
all that follows the characteristic : what remains 



100 THE BOOT. §82 

is the root ; thus, Xsy-co, tsqti-g), juccqti-tco, ts fi- 
ve* ; roots Xey, tsqtt, /uapTv, rtju. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

210. — Obs. 1. The letter t is frequently added to the root be- 
fore the termination in the present and imperfect, apparently to 
strengthen the sound, as in zvTtrco. The characteristic, if a mid- 
dle or aspirate mute, coming before this r, is of course changed 
into its own smooth (43-2); thus, fiacp before zco becomes flan, 
and the verb, ^dntco. Hence, in order to find the root, the char- 
acteristic changed by euphony must be restored as in the follow* 
ing words : 









Charac. 


Root. 


fiXdnto} 


by euphony for 


fildfitCQ 


% 


pXafi 


XQV71TCO 


u 


XQvfttCO 


§ 


XQvft 


xodvTZtca 

e/ 


u 


xakvfizco 


P 


xcdvfi 


antco 


u 


depzeo 


<r 


dep 


fidaTco 


u 


fidcpToo 


9 


pacp 


&d7lT(0 


u 


tfdcpzco 


<?> 


&acp 


Gxdnrw 


u 


GXatpTCQ 


gp 


oxacp 


oqvtitcq 


u 


dgvcpzco 


<p 


dgvqi 


Q17ZTW 


M 


QlCpZOD 


<p 


Qicp 


QaTlZCD 


u 


QdyzG) 


<p 


Qaq> 



Also G[iv%co and i/w/oo have their roots 07*17 and \pvy. 
Note. The preceding list contains all the words to which this obser- 
vation is applicable. 

SECONDARY FORMS. 

211. — Obs. 2. Many verbs have a Secondary form in the pre- 
sent and imperfect, which has come into general use, while the 
original form or theme, has become obsolete, §116. The root 
of the theme nevertheless remains the proper root of the verb 
in the other tenses, and will be found in the future by striking off 
goo. If the letter next preceding be a consonant, it is the charac- 
teristic of the verb. If it be a long vowel, either that or iis cor- 
responding short vowel is the characteristic. But if it be a short 
or doubtful vowel, the characteristic is either that vowel itself, or 
a T-mute, which has been rejected before gco for the sake of sound, 
44-8. This observation applies in the fallowing cases ; viz., 

1st. Verbs in ggco (zzco) or £oo, are secondary forms, derived 
from primary, whose characteristic is a x-mute (commonly y) 



§ 82. THE ROOT. 101 

when the future ends in Jca ; or a T-mute (commonly 8) when 
the future ends in ceo. The characteristic being substituted for 
ffff (tt), or J, gives the supposed primary form. Thus, 

Secondary form. Future. Char. Primary form. Root. 

7Tquggw (ztco) 7ZQoi$(o y ngdyco flQCty 

xod^co kqu^co y xqccygj KQay 

nXdaoco (trco) rzXuaco d nXadco nXaft 

(pgd£(o cpQaaa) d cfQadco yijad 

t ty \ up7zd$co y dandy on do nay 

agnaico 1 ' s '" * ' s >'* \ 

^ ( aonaoco o aanadco annuo 

Exc. The following are the verbs of this class which have not y or 
d for their characteristic ; viz., fiijaao), oqvgom, g^tWw, xoqvgow, and 
HaooucLi,, which have their roots respectively fly/, oqv/, qpptx, xoqv&, 
/it, making the primary forms /?^/w> 6^ j'/oj, g^u'xw, xoqv&o), and Hroficu. 

2d. Most verbs in crxoa are secondary forms from pure verbs 
in to (§ 116, I and II). The primary forms will appear by drop- 
ping o"x ; thus, ytjodaxw, primary form yqgdo), Root, />/««. 

3d. Many verbs, irregular in the present and imperfect, are 
secondary forms from obsolete verbs which furnish the roots for 
the other tenses. See §§ 116 and 117. In nearly all such verbs, 
the first root will be found by taking aco or aofiai from the future 
as found in the Lexicons; thus, 



Secondary form. 


Future. 


1 Root 


Primary form. 


Xuurjdfco 
Xavftdioj 


Xtppofuu 

Xifita 




h'/{ko 

XijOa) 


nvvftdvofiui 


ntvoopai 
p^oofxai 


pa 


7I£V&(0 

fidco 



Bern. In reducing secondary into primary forms in this manner, the 
vowel before atn and oopou in the future, made long by § 96, R. 1, must 
be shortened ; and the T-mute, rejected by § 94, R. 2, must be restored, 
to give the proper form of the root ; as, fiaivo) and lav&civio, above. In 
sill mute verbs, the proper characteristics concealed by combining with 
aw, Ac. will always be seen in the 2 aorist, or 2 perfect. Thus in Xav- 
&dv«), the 2 aor. is tlaftov, showing the characteristic to be &, and 1 root, 
consequently, XrjO: Hence 

TO FIND THE ROOT IN SECONDARY FORMS. 

212. — Rule. From the future indicative active 
or middle as found in the Lexicons, strike off oco 
or oo/Licu ; what remains is the root, either in its 
simple form, or modified by the rules of euphony ; 
thus, 



102 



THE SECOND ROOT. 



83. 



Secondary form. 


Future. 




Root. 


TtQCCGGCO 


nod^co elide 


Geo leaves 


■nqay, 44-7 


xod^co 


XQa%ca 


GCO 


xgay, 44-7 


nldaaco 


7lldcG) 


GCO 


7iiud, 44-8 


cpgd^co 


qjoaGco 


GCO 


cpgad, 44-8 


y)jod<j>:co 


yvoaGco 


6C0 


yijga 


Xa^dvco 


Xf/ipofiat 


GO/AOU 


hrf, 44-6 


lavddvco 


XqGco 


GCO 


lrft t 44-8 


TZvvxtdvofim 


nswoficu 


GOfiai 


7Z£vd; 44-8 


fiaivco 


firfiOfACu 


GOflCll 


(la 



213. — 3. Many verbs change the form of the root in the se- 
cond tenses, i. e. in the second future passive, and second aorist ; 
and in the second perfect, and second pluperfect active. These 
forms, for the sake of distinction, are called the second and the 
third root — the root of the present being the first root. 



§ 83. THE SECOND ROOT. 

214. — The second root is always formed from 
the first, according to the following { 

RULES. 

1. A long vowel in the first root is changed in- 
to op in the second * thus, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

ofjna, Gr\7l GC17T 

zocoyco, ZQcoy xoay 

2. In diphthongs, a is retained and s is reject- 
ed; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

cpaivco, cpaiv cpav leinco, k*m Im 

xaico, y.cu xa qiEvyco y qevy cpvy 

JSxg. But liquid dissyllables change tc into «, 
polysyllables into s ; as, 



Verb. 

Diss. THVCO, 

Polysyl. dyeiQ co y 



IstR. 

TEIV 

dyziQ 



2dR. 

tav 

dytn 



§ 84. THE THIRD ROOT. 103 

3. In diss) T llables not pure, s before or after a 
liquid, is changed into a ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

TtflVG), Ttfl TCqi CTf'A/.O), GZdX GZCiX 

dtQXCQ, dt(JX 8UQX Tzh'xCO, TlXtX llXoLY. 

Exc. But s remains unchanged after X, in Xtyco, pJam, yXeyco. 

4. Pure verbs in do and tco reject the a and s 
(216, Exc. 1) ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

(ivxda) [ivxa \iv% 

Gzvym Gzvys czvy 



§ 84. THE THIRD ROOT. 

215. — The third root is always formed from the 
second, according to the following 

RULES. 

1. e, of the second root, is changed into o in 
the third ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 3d R. 

Xtyco, Xty Xey Xoy 

ayeiQco, dysiQ dyeQ dyoQ 

2. a, of the second root, from t or tc in the 
first, is changed into o in the third ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 3d R. 

aXdxco, aXex nXax aXox 

G7Z81QCO, G71UQ G7l(CQ GflOQ 

reiva, xuv zav tov 

TtflVCO, TE[l ZOL\L XO[L 

3. i, of the second root, from u of the first, is 
changed into oc ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. ' 3d R. 

Xeinoo, Xun Xia Xoia 



104 THE THIED ROOT. §85. 

4. a, of the second root, from 77 or at of the 
first, is changed into r\ in the third ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 



oqrtCQ, 


<77J7t 


can 


crjn 


(patvcoj 


cpcuv 


cpav 


cpqv 


likewise Calico, 


&al 


Val 


dyl 


xld^CQ, 


vXay 


vlay 


vlriy 



§ 85. VERBS WHICH WANT THE SECOND AND THIRD 
ROOTS. 

216. — Many verbs want trie second tenses, and consequently 
the second and third roots. (198, Obs. 7, N. B.) These are as 
follows : 

Kttle 1. Pure verbs want the second root. 

Exc. 1. The following primitives are excepted : yodco, cndco, 
(ivxdofiai, y^fim, dovne'co, wivneco, qiyicQ, nizvsco, crvyeojj toge'co, 
Xt]X£(o, {togsa), GT8Q8CQ, c^sco, daico, xaico, and a few others. 
Jixovco has the third root axo, but no second. 

Exc. 2. A few dissyllables in ica and vm have the second and 
the third root the same as the first. 

Note 1. Several of these are reckoned with anomalous verbs, § 117 
Some verbs derive their second and third roots from obsolete presents ; 
such as, alqiu) and many verbs in dvu) and dvo/uai,, for which see the 
same section. 

Rule 2. Derivatives in tvco, d£co, i£co, aivco, 
vvco, want the second root. 

Note 2. Primitives, in these terminations, usually have the second 
root. 

Obs. 1. Several verbs which have no second root, and conse- 
quently no second aorist in the first conjugation, derive the sec- 
ond aorist active and middle from forms in the second conjuga- 
tion ; thus, dvw, 2 a. edvv, from JTMI; pai'vco, 2 a. §fip> 9 from 
BHMI\ yiyvcooxcQ, 2 a. eyv<av 9 from rNSZMI, derived from 
yvooj. 

Obs. 2. Many verbs not included under the above rules never 
use the second tenses ; others have them only in the passive 
voice ; others again are used in these tenses only by certain writ- 



§86. THE TENSE-ROOT. 105 

ers. — In such a variety of usage, it is proper to assume that all 
verbs not included in the above classes form the second and third 
roots according to the rules in §§83, 84. 



§ 86. THE TENSE-ROOT. 

217. — The Tense-Root is that part which re- 
maiDs unchanged in all parts of the same tense. It 
consists of all that precedes the termination, ex- 
cept the augment. 

Obs. 1 . In some of the tenses, certain letters are inserted be- 
tween the verb-root and terminations. These are called signs of 
the tenses to which they belong, because they serve to distinguish 
these tenses from others. 

The Tense-Signs added to the verb-root, form the tense-root 
in these tenses ; and, prefixed to the terminations, they form the 
tense-endings, 232-2. Hence, in the tenses which have no sign, 
the verb-root alone is the tense-root, and the termination alone is 
the tense-ending ; as, t-hn-ov. ( Obs. 4.) 

218. — The tense-signs, together with the tenses to which they 
belong, are exhibited in the following — 

TABLE OF TENSE-SIGNS. 

1. In mute and pure verbs, the tense-signs are as follows 

Act. 
Future, -<r- 

1 Aorist, -6- 

2 Future, — 
Perf. and Pluperf., - - or -x- 

2. In liquid verbs, the tense-signs are as follows : 
Future, -«- 

1 Aorist, — 

2 Future, — 
Perf. and Pluperf, -x- 

Obs. 2. If the characteristic be a ;r-mute or a x-mute, the 
sign of the perfect and pluperfect active is the spiritus asper ('), 
which, combining with the mute before it (43-3), changes n or 
fl into qp ; x or y into #. But when the characteristic is cp or ^, 
the spiritus aspe: disappears. 



Mid. 


Pass. 


-c- 


-&r}G- 


-6- 


-#- 





tjC- 


as follows : 




-€- 


-drfi- 





-&- 





-rja- 



106 



THE AUGMENT. 



§87 



Obs. 3. If the characteristic is a vowel, or a r-mute, or a li 
quid, the sign of the perfect and pluperfect active is x. 

Obs. 4. In all the tenses, except those in the preceding table, 
i. e. in the second aorist through all the voices, — the second per- 
fect and second pluperfect active, and the perfect and pluperfect 
passive, — and also, in liquid verbs, the first aorist active and mid- 
dle, the tense-root and the verb-root are always the same. So 
also in the present and imperfect in all voices. 

Exc. But irregular verbs, and those which fall under the Ex- 
ceptions and Observations, § 82, have the tense-root in the present 
and imperfect different from the verb-root ; though, like other 
verbs, it consists of all that precedes the termination in the present 
indicative. Thus, for example, in jzouggg), the tense-root in the 
present and imperfect is noaGG, while the verb-root is nody. In 
iafx^dvco, the tense-root of the present and imperfect is lafifidv, 
while the verb-root is kqfi ; and so of others. 

219. WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE PRECEDING RULES. 



[In the following list 
the kind of verbs — form 
give the rule for each.] 

tvTzrca, I strike. 
Xsyco, I say. 
%aiQ<x), 1 rejoice. 

GTZEIQG), I SOW. 

TQ&cpco, I nourish, 
uyco, I lead. 
xqu^co, I cry aloud, 
fidlla), I cast, 
mi&co, I persuade. 
cwWco, I praise. 
d{i8Lfi(o, I change, 
doom, I plow. 
@l87ico t I see. 



of verbs, tell the characteristic, the root, and 
the second and the third root (if in use), and 



lei7ZCQ, I leave. 
rocoyco, I eat. 
7il&XGi) I fold. 
oqieiXco, I owe. 
{id.Q7Zzcx), I seize. 
71quggco, I do. 
q)od£(Q y I say. 
cpaivcoj I show. 
do7id£co, I plunder. 
EyeiQG), I awake. 
xH>go, / sacrifice. 
xaXeco, I call. 
xuqcq, I shave. 



dtida, I fear. 
diduGxcQ, I learn. 
TQtTZco, I turn, 
(iiatvco, I pollute. 
7Thfj,7Z(o, I send, 
vtfxcoy I assign. 
{le'vojj I remain, 
notsoa, I make. 
GTt'D.co, I send. 
[isi'qgj, I divide, 
m-iod^co, I try. 
QUirto, I sprinkle. 
7ZQr]&cQ, I burn. 



220.— § 87. II. THE AUGMENT. 

1. The augment is a prefix joined to the root in 
the preterite tenses. 

2. There are two kinds of augments, the temporal and sylla- 
bic. 



§88. THE AUGMENT. 107 

3. The temporal augment is used when the root begins with 
a vowel or diphthong, and lengthens the initial vowel. 

4. The syllabic augment is used when the verb begins with a 
consonant, and prefixes a syllable to the root. 

AUGMENTED TEXSES. 

5. The imperfect and aorists have the augment 
in the indicative only. The perfect, pluperfect, 
and paulo-post-future, retain it through all the 
moods. 

6. The present and future have no augment. 



221.— §88. RULES FOR THE AUGMENT. 

1. If the verb begins with a consonant, the aug- 
ment e is prefixed ; as, twit a, Itvktov ; yixrco, 
tqqiTCTOVy 43-5. 

2. The perfect reduplicates the initial consonant 
before a ; as, tvtttco, perfect Tsrvcpa. 

Exc. 1. The aspirate reduplicates its own 
smooth ; as, &av/ua^co 9 perf. Ttfrav/Liaxa ; cpaivco, 
perf. Tvecpayxa, 43-4. 

Exc. 2. Verbs beginning with q, yv, (pi% or a 
before or after a consonant, do not reduplicate 
thus, 



Q 


QITTZG) 


8(){)ICf(t 


da 


£aco 


efypta 


"/'• 


yv6(o 


tyror/.a 


an 


anevdoi 


ianevxa 


y& 


qftiG) 


eq &ixa 


at 


OTQt'cpco 


tozgoqia 


na 


\pevdco 


e^<tvxa 









Obs. 1. Sometimes also verbs beginning with xz, and ttt, do 
not reduplicate ; as, 

xr xtfivoj txiayxa xt/Jqj exrixa 

717 TZtoeoa tTTTorjxa 

And sometimes, though rarely, those beginning with yl, §1. 



108 THE AUGMENT. § 88. 

3. When the perfect reduplicates the initial 
consonant, the pluperfect receives a new augment ; 
as, 

Otherwise not ; as, qmzb) egQiqxz iqQicpeiv 

4. If the verb begins with a y s y o\ or with av, 
at, ot y the initial vowel is changed into its own 
long, and c of the diphthong is subscribed ; as, 



dvvco 


rpvav 


avZdvco 


rjv^avov 


tXn&jo 


r[k,7ii£,ov 


CUT8G) 


rjieoVf 


07iaC,(o 


w7iat,ov 


olxi£<a 


CQXl&V 



Exc. 1. E is often changed into its own diph- 
thong; as, 

Ifp I have e7%ov 

The verbs which change s into si are the following: idm, 
8%0[i,(u, i&i^in, slioam, sXxco, ikxsm, iXxvco, ilsco, flco, mofiai, 
S7TG) (this verb retains the augment through all the moods), soda, 

8Q803, 8Q7KO, 8Q7lvQ(Q, 8QV0O, SOTIjXCQ, SGTICIGO, 8%G), and 803, 20. 

Mac. 2. If the verb begins with to, the s is un- 
changed and the o augmented ; as, toord^co, 
scoora^ov. 

So also some 2d pluperf. active ; viz., from the 2d perf. toXna, 
pluperf. sojXtteiv ; — soma, icpxsiv ; — Zogya, icogyeiv. 

Exc. 3. J%co, I blow; dim, I hear ; d^s'aaco, lam unused ; 
dydi&iiai, I loathe ; retain the initial vowel unchanged ; as also 
some verbs derived from olxog, ohog, olmvog, and ot'a$ ; as, olvi^co, 
I smell of ivine, om£ov ; and also the 2d perfect active when the 
root begins with 01 ; as, olda, plup. oideiv. 

5. If the initial vowel is not a, s y o ; or av, at, 
01, it is not augmented: but t and v short are 
made long ; as. 

n sixdtm e"xa£ov 

8V EVQlGXOD EVQIGXOV 

ov ovrd£a) ovza£ov 
See Exceptions, 224-4, 5. 



1 

V 


ixofivu 

'vfigi^G) 


lXOfl?]V 
C V@Q<£0V 


n 

00 


O)#C0 


ni mv 

<n&ov 



§ 89, 90. THE AUGMENT. 109 



222.— § 89. AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

1. When the verb is compounded with a pre- 
position, the augment comes between the preposi- 
tion and the verb ; as, %qoq-(ptQ(Oy nQOQ-t-cptqov. 

Obs. 1. The prepositions drop their final vowel before the aug- 
ment e ; as, dno(palvco t dndqiaivov ; xata^dXXm, xatE^aXXov : — 
But, 

Obs. 2. nsgl before s remains unchanged ; ngo usually com- 
bines with it by contraction; thus, ngoE^v becomes ngov^v. 
116,11. 

Obs. 3. When v, in the prepositions avv and ev, is changed 
into another consonant, by the rules of euphony, 46-15, it is re- 
covered when separated from that consonant, by the augment s ; 
thus, avXfoyo), cwtXeyov ; av/yqaycQ, avveygaqiov ; ififiiva, eve- 

flEVOV. 

2. Verbs compounded with dvg or ev, take the augment after 
the particle, when the simple verb begins with a, e, o, or with 
av y at, oi ; as, ovGaoEGtEG), 8vgi}qegzeov ; evoqxe'w, evgjqxeov. 

3. But if the simple verb begin with any other vowel or con- 
sonant, dug is augmented, and ev remains unchanged ; as, ovgtv- 
££Q), idvozv^EOv, dEdvozvj(t]xa ; evtv^e'co, EVTvxqxa. 

4. Other compounds generally take the augment at the be- 
ginning. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

223. — The exceptions from these rules are but few, and will be 
best learned by practice. Some writers augment certain com- 
pound verbs in the beginning, and others in the middle ; while 
other verbs are sometimes augmented in both ; as, inlGtauai, 1 
understand, tiniGtd^irjv ; dvoQ&om, I erect, ?)vc6q&oov ; xa&Evda) f 
I sleep, xa&nvdov or Exd&Evdov ; evoxXew, I disturb, ^vco^Xeov. 



224.— § 90. OBSERVATIONS ON THE AUGMENT. 

1. In the early Greek poets, the use of the augment is very 
fluctuating, the same word sometimes occurring with the aug- 
ment and sometimes without it ; as, i&cpEQE and sxcpEQE, he car- 

6 



110 THE AUGMENT. §90. 

ried out ; 'iXafie and Xdfie, he took ; yyev and dyer, he brought ; 
idsdwro, dsSexzo, and Sexto, he had received. 

Obs. 1. From the antiquity of the Ionic, this has been usually 
considered a peculiarity of that dialect; but it occurs frequently 
in the Attic writers, particularly in choruses ; as, av&n for iov&tj, 
he was driven ; ysysvyzo for tyaysvqzOj it had been ; dvdXwxa, for 
avfjlooxa, I have spent. 

2. In Homer and Hesiod, aorists often receive the reduplica- 
tion, which remains through all the moods ; thus, xexduco for 
Ttdpoj, I shall have laboured ; XeXdpEC&ai for Xdfiea&ai, to have 
received. 

3. In all dialects, verbs beginning with X and p frequently 
take el or si as the augment of the perf. ; as, eiXrjqja for XiXriq>a y 1 
have taken ; elfiaqrai for [ispaoTcu, it has been decreed. 

4. The Attics often change the simple augment s into ij, and 
augment the initial vowels of verbs beginning with si and ev ; as, 
rfivvdttriv for idvvd{ir]v, I was able; yxa^ov for ei'xa^ov, I assimi- 
lated ; rjv%6[A,rjv for evxofflv, I prayed ; ydeiv for sifts/-?, / kneio. 

5. In verbs beginning with a, s, o, or with av, at, oi, the At- 
tics sometimes prefix s instead of the usual augment ; i. e. they 
use the syllabic instead of the temporal augment ; as, tat a for 
fca ; idXcoxa for ?jXwxa. Sometimes they use both ; as, oodoi, 
I see, ecooaov, ecogaxa. 

ATTIC KEDTJPLICATION. 

6. When the verb begins with a, s, or o, followed by a con 
sonant, the first two letters are sometimes repeated before the or- 
dinary augment. This is called the Attic Reduplication ; thus, 



ayeiQG) 
s'jusco 


I assemble 
I vomit 
I smell 


tjyeoxa 

ijfiexa. 

ada 


Attice, dy-rffEQxa 

£fl-?j[l£XU 

od-ada 


0QVG60) 


I dig 


cqqvxcl 


OQ-ooov%a 



Obs. 2. The pluperfect sometimes takes anew augment on the 
initial vowel of the reduplication ; thus, dx-j]xoa, rjx-ijxoeiv. 

Obs. 3. This form of the verb frequently changes a long vowel 
or diphthong into a short or doubtful vowel in the third syllable ; 
thus, dh'jXiyct for rjXeicpa, and dXyXifipai for irjXei^M, from ateicpm; 
axrjxoa for r\xoa, from dxovm. 

1. Mule. The simple augment is confined to the indicative 
mood ; the reduplication remains in all the moods. 



§91. 



TERMINATIONS. 



Ill 



225.— §91. m. THE TERMINATIONS. 

1. The terminations are parts of the verb added immediately 
to the tense-root, and which, by their changes, serve to distinguish 
the voices, moods, numbers, and persons. These are different in 
the two conjugations. 

2. The terminations in the first conjugation consist of two 
parts — the mooc vowel, and final letters. 

The mood-voivel distinguishes the mood and connects the final 
letters with the U nse-root. The final letters distinguish the voices, 
numbers, and persons. 

3. The mood-jowel is the first letter of the termination, and in 
the indicative, ii always short or doubtful except in the 1st and 
2d pluperfect, vhich has always a — in the subjunctive, it is al- 
ways long — in tue optative, always a diphthong. 

4. The final tetters are of two classes, — Primary and Second- 
ary ; the former ire used in the indicative mood in the primary 
tenses, and the dtter, in the secondary (199-3). Also, the pri- 
mary final letter, are always used in the subjunctive mood, and 
the secondary b the optative. 

2.r6. table of final letters. 







ACTIVE VOICE. 




Primary. 

1. 2. 
Sing, o ig 
Dual. — rov 
Plural, pep re 


3. 
1 

rov 

VZCl 


Secondary. 

1. 2. 
Sing, v, pi, — , g 
Dual. — rov 
Plural, nsv re 


a. 

rnv 

v, o~av t ep 



MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 



Primary. 

1. 2. 3. 

Sing, fiat aai rat 

Dual. (ie$ ov odov o(tov 

Plural. fiE&a o&e vrai 



3. 



Secondary. 

1. 2. 

Sing, fitjv go ro 

Dual, [it&ov c&ov o&nv 
Plural, ue&a o&s vro 



5. The mood-vowels and final letters combined form the ter- 
mination in the indicative, subjunctive, and optative moods through 
the whole verb, except in the perfect and pluperfect, middle and 
passive, which, having no mood-vowels, annex the final letters im 
mediately to the root 

. The following table shows the mood-vowels and final letters, 
both separate and combined. 



LJ-IJi ■»'■ 



112 



TERMINATIONS. 



§91. 



227. ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Primary. 
Present and Future. 
Mood-vowels and final letters separate. The same combined. 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 


0-0 

o-pev 


s-ig 8-1 CO 
e-zov e-zov — 
e-zs o-vzai ofiev 
First and Second Perfect 


sig 

EZOV 

sze 


El 
EZOV 

ovai(v) 


Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 


a~ 
a-fiev 


a-g £- 
a-tov a-tov 
a-zs a-vzai 


a 
afiEv 


ag 

azov 

azs 


E 

azov 
aai 


Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 


o-v 
o-\iev 


Secondary. 
Imperfect and Secon 
s-g £- 
e-zov i-zi\v 

E-ZE 0-V 


d Aorist. 
ov 

OflEV 


Eg 

EZOV 
EZE 


EZqV 
OV 






First Aorist. 






Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 


a- 
a-fisv 


a-g £- 
a-tov d-zqv 
a-tE a-v 


a 
a\i£v 


ag 

azov 

azE 


E 

dzqv 
av 






First and Second Pluperfect. 






Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 


ei-v 
Ei-fiev 


si-g £i- 

El-ZOV £l-Z7]V 

si-zE Ei-aav 


£IV 
ElflEV 


Eig 

ElZOV 
SIZE 


El 

£ixr\v 
Eiaap 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 










All the Tenses. 






Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 


co-o 
(o-fiev 


r]-ig q-i 

Tj-ZOV 7]-ZOV 

ij-zs co-vzai 


CO 

COflEV 


rjzov 

1]ZE 


V 
qzov 

(001 






OPTATIVE MOOD. 










All the Tenses except the First Aorist. 




Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 


Ol-{ll 
Ol-\l£V 


oi-g oi- 

Ol-ZOV Ol-ZtjV 
Ol-ZS Ol-EV 


OlfU 
OlflEV 


oig 
oizov 

OIZE 


01 

oizqv 

OlEV 



The First Aorist Optative has av instead of ov for its mood-vowela. 

6. In this table the indicative mood-vowel o, and the subjunc 
tive to, combining with the final letter -o makes co ; and with 
-nci they make oven and cocrt ; § 6, Rules 8, 10, and 18. 



§91. 



TERMINATIONS. 



113 



228. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 







INDICATIVE MOOD. 










Primary. 










Present and Futures. 






Mood -vowels and final letters separate. 


The same combined. 


Sing. 


o-fiai 


b-gcu e-iai 


o\iai 


5(7) 


€ZCU 


Dual. 


O-flt&OV 


e-a&ov e-a&ov 


6(A8&OV 


EG&OV 


EG&OV 


Plural. 


o-fie&a 


s-o&e o-vtai 


o/xs&a 


EGde 


OVTUl 






Secondary. 








Imperfect and. Second Aorist Middle. 




Sing. 


6-fiqv 


e-GO £-70 


0\JU]V 


o,(7) 


ezo 


Dual. 


o-fie&of 


e-G&ov t-G&rjv 


0\l£#OV 


EG&OV 


EGxJrpf 


Plural. 


o-fie^u. 


E-G&E O-VIO 


optO^a 


£G&e 


OVTO 






First Aorist Middle. 






Sing. 


d-fiqv 


a-GO a-to 


afiqv 


CtGO 


ato 


Dual. 


d-ntftov 


a-G&ov d-Gxy^v 


dpt&ov 


CCG&OV 


aG&ijp 


Plural. 


d-fie&a 


a-G&e a-vto 


dfxt&u 


CZG&E 


avxo 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 










All the Tenses. 






Sing. 


co-fiat 


T]-G(U r t -T(U 


count 


ff(') 


TJTUt 


Dual. 


<6-[uftov 


ly-G^OV Tj-G&Ol' 


cout&ov 


ifiOttv 


7/(T#0V 


Plural. 


(6-fi€&a 


Ij-G&t CO-I'TUI 


OJ/t£l>« 


•tjG&S 


(OVTUl 






OPTATIVE MOOD. 








Present and Futures, also 2d Aorist Middle. 




Sing. 


Ol-(lT]V 


Ol-GO Ol-TO 


oi '/<; pt 


oio (7) 


0170 


Dual. 


oi-pt&ov 


01-G&OV Ol-Gxh^' 


oiptftov 


01G&0V 


ota&tjv 


Plural. 


oi-fie&a 


oi-G&e oi- no 


offiaxfa 


01G&S 


01VT0 



The First Aorist Optative has on instead of <u for its mood-vowels. 

7. In the second person singular, egcu, in combining, elides g, 
leaving ecu, and then contracts the concurrent vowels into rj (116, 
Exc. 3). So also tjgcu becomes //«*, and then -q (11G, R. viii). 
So €ov> becomes eo, contracted ov (116, R. ii) ; ugo becomes ao, 
contracted co (116, R. vii. 1) ; and oigo, eliding o", becomes oio, 
without contraction. 

8. In the passive voice, the perfect and pluperfect have no 
mood-vowels, but annex the final letters (which in this case are 
the terminations) immediately to the root, 270-10. Also, the 
first and second aorists, in the indicative, as a termination prefix 
^, and, in the optative, tit], to the secondary final letters of ths 
active voice, as will be seen in the table, 231. 

9. The final letters and mood-vowels of the imperative, infini- 
tive, and participles, will be seen combined in the following tables. 



— _ ■ _ ■ ■ ■■ _ 



114 



TABLES OF TEKMINATIONS. 



§92. 



§ 92. TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 
229. — I. ACTIVE VOICE. 



Pres. and Fut. 
S. -co -eig -a 
D. -ezov -ezov 

P. -ofisv -szs -ovai 



INDICATIVE. 

Primary Tenses. 
1st and 2d Perfect. 
-a -ag -s 

•azov -azov 
-a\i8v -are -aai 

Secondary Tenses. 



Imperf. 


and 2d 


Aor. 


1st and 2d Pluperfect. 


1st Aor. 


s. 


-ov 


-eg 


-s 


-81V -sig -81 


-a -ag -e 


D. 




-8Z0V 


-t'zqv 


-81XOV -81X7JV 


-azov -azrp 


P. 


-0[lEV 


-SZS 


-ov 


-eifiev -8ix8 -eioav 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


-afisv -axs -av 


S. 
D. 
P. 


-CO 
-COflEV 


•ye 

-TjZOV 
-71X8 


•v 

-qzov 

-COGl 


The same as first 
column. 

OPTATIVE. 


The same as first 
column. 


s. 

D. 
P. 


-Ol^l 
-OlflEV 


-oig 

-OIZOV 
-OIT8 


-01 

-OIX7JV 

-018V 


The same as first 
column. 

IMPERATIVE. 


-aifu -aig -at 

-aixov -aixrp 
-aiftsv -aits -aisv 


s. 




-8 


-8ZCO 




-ov -azco 


D. 




-8ZOV 


-8ZCOV 


The same as first 


-azov -dzcov 


P. 




-8X8 


-szcoaav 


column. 


-axe -dzcoaar, 






or 


-ovzcov 


INFINITIVE. 


or -dvzcov 






-81V 




| -tvai 

PARTICIPLES. 


l-„ 


N. 


-COV 


-ovaa 


-ov 


1 -cog -via -6g 


-ag -acra -av 


G. 


-ovzog 


-owqg 


, &c. 


1 -oxog -viag -oxog 


-caxog -daijg -aiiog 



Obs. In this table, the terminations in the first column belong to the 
present, imperfect indicative, future, and 2d aorist ; all those in the 
2d, to the first and second perfect and pluperfect ; and all those in the 
3d, to the 1st aorist. 



§92. 



TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 



115 



230. — II. MIDDLE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 



Primary Tenses. 



MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

Pres. and Fut 

S. -oftai -\i -£T(a 

D. -ofuftov -eg&ov -eg&ov 

P. -6fiE&a -eg&e -oizcu 



Secondary Tenses. 
Imperfect and 2d Aorist 
S. -ofiqv -ov -eto -duqp 

D. -6fit&nv -egVov -ta&qv -dptftov 
P. -ofie&a -eg&e -ovro -tqie&u 



1st Aorist 

-co 

-ac&ov 



-((.TO 
-UG&JfP 

-avxo 



R. -couai 
}). -coutOov 
P. -cr ( a0a 



-jjGxtov 
-yo&E 



SI T.Jl'NCTIVE. 



-Ifidov 



The same as first column. 



OPTATIVE. 



S. -OIU1JV -010 -ouo 

1). -offit&ov -oigOqv -oto&rp 
P. -oittt&a -oui&e -on to 



-aiu.rjv -cuo -aiio 

•aute&op -cua&o* -aia&ijp 
•ai/u&a -aia&E -uivio 







IMPERATIVE. 






s. 


-ov 


-fO&O) 




-at 


-UG\>CO 


D. 


•EG&OV 


-egOcov 




-ug&op 


•cta&cov 


P. 


-eg&e 


-e'g&cogup 




-CtG&E 


-UG&OXSUP 






INFINITIVE. 








-eo&ai 


1 

PARTICIPLES. 


-UG&CU 




N\ 


-ofievog -out'irj 


-Ofiei'or 


-dftEvo<; 


-ctfuvrj 


-a\uivov 


G. 


-OflEVGV -Ofltt'/jg 


-OfltVOV 


-CtflEVOV 


-aHEvijg 


-CiftWOV 



Obs. In this table of the middle voice, the terminations of the 
perfect and pluperfect are omitted, being the same throughout 
as those of the perfect and pluperfect passive on the next page. 



116 



TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 



231.— in. PASSIVE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



§92. 



Primary Tenses. 



PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 



Perfect. 



S. -fiat 
D. -ps&ov 
P. -fieda 



-GCU -VCU 

-c&ov -c&ov 
-G&e -vtcu 



Pluperfect. 

S. -[ITJV "(SO 

D. -fie&ov -a&ov 
P. -iiE&a -g&s 



Secondary Tenses. 

1st and 2d Aorists. 
-to -rp> -r\g -rj 

-crityy -tjrov -tjzqv 

-vro -riuzv -tire -i]Gow 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



S. -fievog oj 

D. -fievco 

P. -[tevoi g>[A8v rph 



7JTOV 



coat 



-(OflSV 



OPTATIVE. 



S. -fxevog ur\v s'lr\g sir] 

D. -{ISVOD SlTjTOV UT\Vt]V 

P, -fie'voi slqiASV si^ts siijaav 



-eiijv 



-eiTtfiev 



S. 
D. 
P. 



M. 

N. -{tevog 
G. ^[dvov 



IMPERATIVE. 

-GO -G&03 

-G&OV -G&GJV 
-G&6 -G&(OGaV 



INFINITIVE. 



-G&ai 



-tJTOV -TJJOV 

-tjzs -ooffi 



-eiqg -sir] 

-Eitjzov -eitjttjv 

-eiT]T8 -efyoav 

i 

-rfti -//tco 

-IjTOV -//TOW 

-T]tS -fjZCQGaV 

-jjvcu 



PARTICIPLES. 



F. N. 
-[niwi -fisvov 
-fierqg -fievov 



-eig 
-svrog 



F. 

-siGa 
■eiGrjg 



N. 
-wzog 



For the terminations of the present, imperfect, 1st, 2d, and 3d 
futures of the passive voice, see the terminations in the first column 
of the table on the preceding page. 



93. FORMATION OF TENSES. 117 



232.-- § 93. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN MUTE 
AND PURE VERBS. 

1. Each tense consists of its proper root, and 
tense-ending, together with the augment prefixed 
in the augmented tenses. 

Obs. 1. The 2 future passive and 2 aorist add the tense-end- 
ings to the second root, the 2 perfect and 2 pluperfect active, te 
the third root, and all others to the first. 

Exc. Tqi7mo, TQt'cpco, and Gigtyco, in the perfect and pluper 
feet passive, have the second root. <l>ev'/co and x£v#a>, in the 2 
perfect active, have sometimes the first, instead of the third root 
Il£[i7T(o, xXtTZTco, tq87Zco, )Jya>, and TQtqG), in the perfect and plu- 
perfect active, change « of the first root into o. 

2. The tense-endings consist of the tense-signs (218) and ter- 
minations united ; and when there is no tense-sign, the termina- 
tion alone is also the tense- ending, as exhibited in the following 
table. 

TABLE OF TENSE-ENDINGS. 



Tense. 


Active. 




Middle. 




Passive. 


1 Future, 


-a-(o (liq. -/-co) 




•<j-Ojuu (liq. 


-i-opai) 


-&rjG-0[A(tl 


2 Future, 










-)}G-0[lCU 


1 Acrist, 


-G-a (liq. -a) 




-a-dfi^v (liq. 


-(qiTjv) 


~d--T]1> 


2 Aorist, 


-ov 




-oyup 




-7JV 


Perfect, 


-a-a, or --a, 235. 


R.l. 


-[ICU 




-fiai 


Phiperf. 


-x-tir y or --ttv 




-Mv 




-Mv 


2 Perfect, 


-a 











2 Plupert. -€tv 

Fut-Perf. or Paulo-post-future -g-o\lvli -G-oficu 

233. — GENERAL RULES. 

Kule 1. The imperfect is formed from the pre- 
sent by prefixing the augment and changing co 
into ov, and o/ligci into 6/uqv ; as, tvxtco, ^tvtvtov, 

TV^TOftaC, 8TV7lTOjLlt)V. 

Rule 2. All tenses except the present and im- 
perfect, add the tense-endings to the proper root 
(232, Obs. 1), and prefix the augment in the pre- 
terite tenses, as follows : 

6* 



118 FORMATION OF TENSES. ] S4 

234. — SPECIAL RULES FOR EACH TENSE. 

1. Active Voice. 
Future. Add goo to the 1st root. 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -a a to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. j Prefix the augment, and add -ov to the 2d root. 
Perfect. Augment, reduplicate, and add -xa or -a to the 1st root, 

235, R. 1. 
Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 

-xeiv or -slv to the 1st root. 
2 Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -a to the 3d root. 
2 Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 
siv to t\u 3d root. 

2. Middle Voice. 
Future. Add -aopcu to the 1st root. 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -udfiyv to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -ofiqv to the 2d root. 
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-perfect, are the same as in 

the Passive Voice. 

3. Passive Voi.'e 

1 Future. Add -fttjcoficu to the 1st root. 

2 Future. Add -i]aoiiai to the 2d root. 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -&rp> to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -tjv to the 2d root. 
Perfect. Augment, reduplicate, and add -fiat to the 1st root. 
Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 

-fiqv to the 1st root. 
Fut. Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -aofiai to the 1st root. 



235.— § 94. SPECIAL RULES FOR MUTES. 

Btjle 1. When the characteristic is a rr-rnute oi 
a #-mute, the perfect active is formed by adding 
--a, and the pluperfect by adding --uv) all 
others add -xa, -xsiv (218, Obs. 2, 3) ; thus, 

XeiTtco Root Xei7t- perf. Xs-kei7i--a combined Xsleupa 

pluperf. ils-leiTT- -mv ifeleiqtiv 

nlexm Root nXex- perf. ni-nXzy.- -a ninXtyoL 

pluperf. ine-nXm-sip 87re7zXdx eiy 



g 95. FORMATION OF TENSES. 119 

~Rulv 2. When the characteristic is a r-mute, 
it is rejected before a consonant in the active and 
the middle voice, and changed into a in the pas- 
sive ; thus, 

Active, Tiei&fo, Root nst&- Fut. nd-aoj perf. %&nti-xa 
Middle, Put. frsi-aopeu 1 Aor. t7tu-<jafjujt 

Passive, 1 fut. netaSijaofuu 1 Aor. mda-fhp pert', naneia-uai 

Exc. The r-mute is rejected in the passive also, when it comes 
before a (44-8); as, ntTitioui for ntntiOcaiy or after a liquid ; 
as, 7ZbQ&-co, 1 future passive TrtQ-fti'jGouat, perfect 7zt-7ieQ-^iou. 
Also, a 57-mute, after a liquid, is rejected before (*cu ; as, it^n-m, 
perfect passive it-Tto-fiai. 

Obs. ThvOwy (TWO), ttv/(o, and ytco (239-2), have v instead 
of eu before a consonant in the passive ; as, nuo-ft^aofitu, GVG-Oi' t G- 
ofiat. (240, R. 2), d'c. ; cptvycj lnis either v or ev\ as, nicfvy-fiuu 
or 7ilcfi:vy-fi(a. 



236.— § 95. METHOD OF FORMING THE TENSES. 
1. Ticoy I honour. 

This verb, requiring do insertion or change of letters for the 

sake of euphony, affords the simplest example for showing the 

formation of tenses. A second and third root (ti), and the 

formed from them, are here assumed, though they do not 

in the verb, to show the manner in which these tenses are 

formed. 

Active. Middle. Pas- 



Pres. 


7/ -CO 


UrOflCU 


Ti-0(j.ai 


Imp. 


b-Tl-OV 


f-Xl-0[LJ\V 


frTHHttjP 


Fut 


TI-6-CD 


Tl-6-0flCU 


n-fiqa-oiiai 


2 Fut. 






thMhOfUU 


1 Aor. 


t-zi-G-a 


f-TI-O-Ciftl^' 


f-7i-&-}jr 


2 Aor. 


t-TI-OV 


t-Tl-6[lT]V 


t-TMp 


Perf. 


Tt-n-x-a 


t&tkfUU 


Tt^n-fiat 


Pluperf. 


.'--7£-7l-X-Wr 


f-Tfr-Tl'-fl^r 


h-te-ri-iuiv 


2 Perf. 


tfrtlrCt 






2 Pluperf. 


£-7£-Ti-en> 






P. P. Fut. 




ts-n'-a-ofj^u 


T6-n-iT-o(iai 



120 



FORMATION OF TENSES. 



§95. 



The following examples fall under 235, Rule 1. They are 
exhibited with the parts divided, and then combined, to show the 
effect of the rules of euphony, § 6, in combining the parts. It 
will be a profitable exercise for the pupil to apply these rules for 
every change. 

• 2. The characteristic a 7r-mute. 
lemon, I leave. 
Roots, 1. XeiTt-t 2. "hn-y 3. Xoix-. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 





Parts divided. 


Parts combined. 


Pres. 


Xsi7i-m 


Xeinco 


Imperf. 


i-Xem-ov 


'iXeinov 


Fut. 


X8L7Z-G-G3 


Xeixpco 


1 Aor. 


e-XeiTZ-a-a 


eXettya 
eXinov 


2 Aor. 


'i-Xm-ov 


Perf. 


Xt-Xei7z--a 


XiXei(fa 


Pluperf. 


i-Xs-Xem- -eiv 


iXsXeicpeiv 


2 Perf. 


Xi-Xom-a 


XzXoina 


2 Pluperf. 


i-Xs-Xom-siv 

MIDDLE VOICE. 


iXtXomeif 


Pres. 


Xdn-o\iai 


Xemofiai 


Imperf. 


i-Xem-otiTjv 


iX€l7l6fH]V 


Fut. 


Xsi7i-a-ofiai 


XeiWoficu 


1 Aor. 


i-Xst,7i-a-dfii]v 


iXeixpd^tjp 


2 Aor. 


i-XL7l-6[l1]V 


iXl7l6flTjV 


Perf. 


Xs-XeiTt-fiai 


XeXeinfiou 


Pluperf. 


i-Xe-X8i7Z-[i7]v 


iXeXeififiTjv 


P. P. Fut. 


Xs-Xei7i-G-0[i(u 

PASSIVE VOICE. 


XeXei\poficu 


Pres. 


Xsijz-ofiai 


Xemoficu 


Imperf. 


i-XsiTi-ofirjv 


iXeinofAtjv 


Fut. 


Xun-fti'iG-oiuu 


Xety&fjGOficu 


2 Fut. 


Xi7i-r]G-0[tai 


Xl7ZijGO[lCU 


1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 


i-XsiTz-tf-qv 
i-Xift-jjv 


iXucp&riv 
iXiTtrjv 


Perf. 


Xs-XeiTi-ficu 


XeXe'unai 


Pluperf. 
P. P. Fut. 


i-Xe-XeiTZ-fitjv 


ihXeififirjf 


Xi-Xsm-cofMci 


XeXstyopcu 



§95. 



FORMATION OF TEXSES. 



121 



3. 


The characteristic i 

7i)Jx(o t I fold. 


i #-mute. 


Roots, 1. rzXex-, 2. nXax-, 


3. nXox-. 




ACTIVE VOICE. 






Parts divided. 


Parts combined 


Pres. 


TlXtX-G) 


nXixa 


Imperf 


e-nXex-ov 


enXexov 


Fut, 


nXtx-G-co 


nh'Sco 


1 Aor. 


1-nXtx-G-a. 


tn)^a 


2 Aor. 


E-nXax-ov 


mXaxov 


Perf. 


ni-nXtx- -a 


mTiXsya 


Pluperf. 


i-7l£-7l).tX- -HV 


mtnXtjm 


2 Perf. 


m-nXox-a 


ninXoxa 


2 Pluperf. 


i-nt-nXox-tiv 

MIDDLE VOICE. 


IninXoxEiv 


Pres. 


ftlJx-oueu 


7iXt'xo[iai 


Imperf. 


t-nXtx-on^v 


ttrXexifap 


Fut. 
1 Aor. 


7l).tX-a-OUM 

i-Tzhx-a-uur^ 


nXt'io/icu 


2 Aor. 


i-7z).ax-6fit t p 


inXuxofirjV 


Perf. 


ne-7ihx-fica 


TTtnXey^ua 


Pluperf. 


i-7re-7iXtx-u> t i' 


inmXhy\Ltp 


P. P. Fut. 


7lE-7lfo'x-<J-OfUU 
PASSIVE VOICE. 


nenXtlofjicu 


Pres. 


nh'x-oficu 


7TXtXOflCU 


Imperf. 


i-nXex-ofop 


inXtXOUTjV 


Fut. 


7iXEx~&i;G-0[iai 


nXex&tjGOficu 


2 Fut. 


nXax-tjG-Oficu 


TzXax/jGOfiou 


1 Aor. 


i-7i)Jx-&-T t v 


i7iXh&t]v 


2 Aor. 


i-nXu.x-r(v 


inXaxrp 


Perf. 


fTs-nXex-pat 


inenXfyfiiiv 


Pluperf. 


£-7IE-7tXtX-Hr]V 


P. P. Fut 


ne-7i)Jx-G-o(icu 


mnXi^oiKU 






122 



FOKMATION OF TENSES. 



§96. 



4. The characteristic a ir-mute. 

7T8i&co, I persuade. 

This verb has the first root tz&Q; the second m&, the third 
noid, and its characteristic being a T-mute, it comes under 235, 
Rule 2. 





Active. 


Middle. 


Passive. 


Pres. 


7T8lx)-(0 


7zeid°-0[tai 


7l8l^-0\iai 


Imp. 


8-7l8ld-OV 


8-7T8l&-6[A,)]V 


i-7l8l&-6[l?]V 


Fut. 


7Z81-G-CO 


7T8l-G-O[l0U 


7Z8l<J-&rjG-0[iai 


2 Fut. 






7Tl&-?IG-Ofiai 


1 Aor. 


8-7181-G-CC 


i-7Z8i-a-d[ir]v 


8-7l8lG^&-r{V 


2 Aor. 


8-7M&-OV 


l-7ii&-b\iriv 


i-7Ti&-rjv 


Perf. 


ni-7181-y.-a 


7ri-7Z8l6-[A,0U 


7T8-7Z8lG-[iai 


Pluperf. 


8-7T8-7t8l-K-8lV 


8-ni-n8iG-\iaiv 


8-7Z8-7l8lG-^lTlV 


2 Perf. 


7l8-7lOl&-a 






2 Pluperf. 


i-7T8-7lOid'-8lV 






P. P. Fut. 




718-7Z81-G-OIICU 


7lS-7T8l-G-0(Xat 



§96. SPECIAL RULES FOR PURE VERBS. 

237. — N. B. In the rules for the Moods and Tenses of verbs, 
let it be remembered, that — 

The three short vowels, a € o 
have their own long, t] y (0 

and their own diphthongs, at « oi 

238. — Rule 1. Verbs in dco, sco, and oca, change 
the short vowel into its own long before a conso- 
nant; as, 

qpitaoo, Root (jo/JU, fut. (pih'/Gco, perf. Tzecp&fjxa, &c. 
239. — EXCEPTIONS. 

1. dm after s or i y retains a\ and 1dm and gdm 
after a vowel ; as, idea, sdam ; xoiudm, xo-zi- 
dom] ysXcccd) yt\a6m. 

Likewise dissyllables in dco which do not pass into qfii ; as, xlaoo, 
xXctGG)' But those which pass into i^u have */, except cp&daj. 



§ 96. FORMATION OF TENSES. 123 

The following also retain a; viz. dxpodoficu, 7zezdco, fla^aaj, 
y.oepdcQ, and vcpdco ; dicpdco lias a or r\. 

2. Ten in tco retain £ ; viz. dx&(o, dfe'co, dpxt'co, Zco, ifitu), rnxtco, 

£«*}, oh'co, refo'co, Tptw. 
Likewise those which form new presents in vrvco, VPVfU, and cxco ; 

as, ivvvco and SwpfU from eco, doe'<jxcQ from dpe'co ; retain e. 
Sixteen in fc'w have e or j/ ; viz. aidt'ofiui, atvtco, axMOfUU, dXqtco, 

dy&tofiui, 8tco, xaltoj, xt'St'co, xopt'co, fiuyjo/nat, 6&'co (o£go), 

no&t'co, novta, crept a, qoptw, y port a; besides a few others 

seldom used ; as, xozeoj, ft.tco, xoptw* 
Six in ceo have ev ; viz. nvtco, TiXeco, yta, pea, J flow ; &£(o, 1 

run ; and vim, I swim ; but (tt oo, / spea^ ; #£<», / ^/ace ; 

and vtco, I spin, have ?/. 

3. In primitive verbs, 6(o retains o ; such as, dpoco, {toco, idoco, 

dfioco, bvoa. Likewise those which form others in rixo and 
(7X00, have o ; but those which pass into cofii } have co ;*except 
didtofit, which has o in the 1 fat and 1 aor. passive ; as, do&i'j- 
aoficu^ t66di t v. 

4. The anomalous verb* xatco and y.Xatoj change at into av ; as, 

xa/o>, fat xuvgco ; y./.aico, xhcvaco. 

5. u4iQt(o, tvptci, and ff/tcu (for j'/co), retain e before # only ; 

as, uin>;6to, aiQe&qaofKU, aiQe&tp, aiQtjftcu, <fcc. 

240. — Rule 2. Pure verba which have e, or a 
doubtful vowel, or a diphthong before a conso- 
nant, in the active and the middle voice, insert a 
before a consonant in the passive ; as, 

Peif. Act. 1 Fut. 1 1 Aor. Pass. Perf. Pass. 

aXi-ta tjXs-xa aXea-&^aoft€u fiXea-fop ftta-ftou 

ysXd-co ytythc-xa yskaa-4H]pofUU tytlda-dijv ytytluo-fiai 

71QI-CO BEJtQIrXa TTpiO-ltlfiOfAat tnplO-xf^V 7Tt7TQtC-(J,ai 

drv-co 'i t rv-y.a divo-ftffiOfAca i;rva-&tjv ijvva-fiai 

77(xi-co nincu-xa Truia-itifionai t7raio-0-rjv nincua-iuu 

xXaico xtxXav-xa xhtvo-&i';60{icu iy.htva-&rjv xixXuvo fiat 
So also verbs in ti'co, tvco, oYco, and ovm. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

^41. — To this rule there are many exceptions ; as, 
1. Five which have e before a consonant do not insert a ; viz. 

airtco, avytw, tfAtco, ipta, 6).tco. 
2 Eight which have « ; viz. dxpodopai, fcdofiat, idofiai, xo- 

t/«co, bpdcoj neipdofica, mpdco, (fcopdoo. 



124 



LIQUID VEEBS. 



97. 



3. One which has i ; viz. r/ro. 

4. Eleven which have v ; viz. dozvco, §qv<q, dva), ftvco, Idovca, 

XCOXVG), KOODOO, XVG), [MJVVG), qvco, iqvco. 

5. Seven which have sv; viz. deva, vevoo, veto (vevaco), nvtta 

(ttvsvocq), qs<o (qsvcco), oevg), %t(Q (xbvgoj). Also many verbs 
in evcoj derived from nouns ; as, paadevco. 

6. One which has ov ; viz. Xovco, as, lovdrjoofiai, <fec. 

1. Fourteen verbs sometimes insert a before a consonant in the 
passive voice, and sometimes not; viz. dovco, dadm, Jew, 
Hda, xaiw, xeodco, %vda>, xoqsco, fivdco, ^qvco, wow, navco, 
yyavo), tydco. 

242. — Kule 3. Verbs in 6co, forming verbs in 
fu y insert a before a consonant in the passive voice ; 
as, yvojfii, yvGoo&qoojuai, &c. 

Except CTocovvvfM from gtqocq, and didcofxi from d6a>, which 
have GZQco&i'jOopcu, dodrffiopcu, &c. 

FORMING THE TENSES OF PURE VERBS. 

243. — The following example shows the method of forming 
the tenses in pure verbs. With few exceptions, having no second 
root (216), they have no 2d future, or 2d aorist; and in the ac- 
tive voice, no 2d perfect, or 2d pluperfect. 



Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 
1 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
P. P. Fut. 



Active. 

tijid-ca 
i-tipa-ov 

Zl\M]-6-<x} 

i-ti^v-a-a 
ze-tifin-x-a. 
i-re-TifATj-x-Eiv 



Middle. 
tifid-Ofiai 

rt.[i)]-G-0[icu 
i-tili^-G-dfifjv 

i-vs-TLfirj-fjirjv 
ze-viptj-o-oiMU 



Passive. 

ttfid-ofiai 
i-Tijia-6/j^v 

7lfltl-&/jG-0[lCU 

i-zifitj-fr-qv 
Te-ri/jm-fim 

TE-TllDj-C-OflCU 



§ 97. LIQUID VERBS. 

244. — Liquid verbs differ from mute and pure 
verbs in forming some of the tenses, as will ap- 
pear by the following — 



§ 97 LIQUID VERBS. 125 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. The future active and middle shortens the 
root, if it contains a diphthong, by rejecting the 
last of the two vowels; and instead of 6co and 
oo/Ltat, adds kco and ao/ueci, contracted a and ov 
fiac ; as, 

Verb. R. Fut. Act. Fut. Mid. 

[ievcd fisv [icv-eco contr. [lev-co, ^er-eofiai contr. ftuhovpuu 

Jtivo) Ttiv rtv-iaj 7£t-gj, tw-ioftcu Ttv-oiuui 

qjaivco (pair (fav-ta> qr («-co, qav-tonai qay-ovfiat 

2. The first aorist active and middle lengthens 
the short root of the future by changing t into 
ii, and lengthening the doubtful vowels ; and in- 
stead of 6a and occju/j}', adds a and ajurjv] as, 

Verb. Fut. 1 Aor. Act 1 Aor. Mid 

rti'rco ztv-tco t-Ttn-u t-Ttti-dun 

qsaivco quv-ico '.v-ct t-qui-uu^v 

Re.n. The Attics often change a into , rpa, Hj/ t vuu/ { y 

3. The perfect md pluperfect active, and all the 
the passive voice, except the present and imper- 
fect, add the tense-endings to the second root ; as. 

Verb. 2. R. Perf. Act 1 Fut Pass. 1 Aor. P. Perf. P. 

arreincoy G710.Q, t-anaQ-xa, onaQ-difiouai, fr-oiraf^yr, t-axaQ-pai 
quiico, (far, ni-quy-xu, (fav-&/ t <jouca, i-qdv-dyv, ns-cpctfi-fia 

JEooc. Verbs in juco form the perfect and pluper- 
fect active and the 1 future, 1 aorist, perfect, and 
pluperfect passive, from the first root by interpos- 
ing 77 before the tense-endings ; as, 

Verb. 1 R. Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. Pass. 

tffico rap re-itfi-q-xa rf/i-/;-i>/;TO/*«i i^efi-/j-x^tjv f <feo 

So also, fidlXco and [itta. 



126 TENSES OF LIQUID VERBS. § 97. 

Note. The tenses which interpose rj are, probably formed regularly 
from obsolete forms in m ; thus, NEMEIl, vf^ao), vivipr/xu, tfcc. ; 
but while these tenses, formed in this way, have remained, the others 
have given place to the liquid forms now in use. See 250. 

4. Dissyllables in tlvco, ivco, vvco, reject v before 
a consonant ; as, 

rsivm, zav-, zs'-za-xa, Ta-ftyGopcu, i-zd-&t]p; zt'-za-fioa, &c. 

XQIVOJ, XQIV; XE-XQl-Xa, XQl-d/jGOflCU, E-XQl-d'qV, X8-XQL~[ICH- 

&VVG), &W-, Tt-&v-xu, tv-ftfjaofiai, E-zv-fryv, TErdv-ficu. 
But xzeivco and 7tXvvco sometimes retain v, sometimes not. 

245. — Obs. Verbs in aivco and vvm commonly drop v before 
the termination beginning with ^, and insert o" in its stead ; as, 
cpaivco, tzXvvco, perf. pass, mcpaaficu, TZETtXvGfiai. — They are in- 
flected thus : 

Singular, 7i£(pac-ti(U ntxpav-oca 7ZE f (pav-zai 

Dual, 7T8Cpda-fi8&ov 7it(pav-&ov (54-1 V) nkyav-&ov 
Plural, TZEcpdo-fiE&cc 7ztcpav-&s TZEcpaG-fiEvoi eigi{v) 

Note. Liquid verbs want the paulo-post-future tense. 

FORMING THE TENSES OF LIQUID VERBS. 

246. — The following examples show the method of forming the 
tenses of liquid verbs, according to the preceding rules. 

247. — ^zeXXm, I send. 
1 R. gzeX. 2 R. GzaX. 3 R. gzoX. 

Active. Middle. Passive. 

Pres. gzeXX-co gzeXX-o(mu gze'XX-ou(u 

Imperf. e-gzeXX-ov e-gzeXX-6[i?]v e-gzeXX-6[ojv 

Fut. GZtX-E-CO, o5 GZe%-E-0[A,ai } OVfl(C( GTaX-itf t G-0[l(U 

2 Fut. GTaX-?;G-o^m 

1 Aor. E-GZEiX-a i-GZEiX-dfir^v i-GzdX-&-r;v 

2 Aor. 8-GzaX-ov i-GzaX-o^v . E-GzdX-r t v 
Peri E-GzaX-a-a E-GzaX-pai E-GiaX-^uu 
Pluperf. E-GzdX-y.-EW i-GzdX-^v i-GzaX-ia^v 

2 Perf. E-GzoX-a 

2 Pluperf. i-GzoX-tiv 



§97. 



TENSES OF LIQUID VERBS. 



127 



Pres. 
Imperf. 
Fut. 
2 Fut 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Perf. 

2 Pluperf. 



Pres. 
Imperf. 
Fut. 
2 Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf 

Pluperf. 
2 Perf 

2 Pluperf. 



248.- 

1 R. qaiv. 

Active. 
qidv-co 
t-qaiv-ov 
qav-t-ca, c5 



-<I>aivWj I show. 

2 R. cpav. 3 R. <)p>;r. 

Middle. Passive. 
q lu'i-ouca q aiv-Ofica 
f-q aiv-oui t-quti'-ouij 
(pctv-e-Ofiai, ov[hci qav-ftifi-Ofiat 
qai'-ijG-ofiai 



i-quv-a 

t-qav-ov 

nt-quy-y.-a 

i-nt-qdy-x-tiv 

nt-qr t v-a 
i-nt-q.ijv-tiv 

249.- 
1 R. rm: 

Active. 

t-zm-nv 

Ttk-tb), o5 



t-qav-uuijv 
i-qCa-our^ 
m (pcus-fuu 

i-7zt-qu6-[ii t v 



t-q ai'-ir-iiv 
t-qdr-^v 
TZt-qaG-fica 
i-ne-cpaa-fttp 



-TVrco, I stretch. 
2 R. rav. 3 R. xov. 

Middle. 

taUMHMU 

t-Tttr-()in t v 



h-Ttiva 

t-TUV-OV 

rt-zu-x-a 

l-Tt-7(C-X-tlV 
Tt'-TOV-CC 

i-TE-zop-eiv 



f-ztn-uu^v 
i'jar-oui^ 1 
tt-ta-ficu 

i-TE-TU-fltiV 



Passive. 
riiv-ofia.1 

t-Tttr-oi(t t v 
ra-O^G-ofica 

TUl-ljG-OflCU 

f-zd-{f-i t v 
f~tdv-i t V 

rt-ra-fiui 

E-TE^td-fltjV 



250.— Afyco, J distribute (244, Note). 
1 R. ftfi. 2 R. vafi. 3 R. vofi. 



Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 
2 Fut 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Perf. 

2 Pluperf. 


Active. 

t-V6fl-OV 


Middle. 
n-'u-oiiui 
i-rcu-6ut ( v 
vefirt-ofieu, 


Passive. 
vt'fi-oticu 
ivEfi-ofirjv 
oi'fiai vtfi-rj-$i' i 6-0{ica 
vufji-i;a-op(u 
i-vtu-i]-0'-r i v 
c-rdfi-) t v 
Pd-vtfi-n-fuu 
t-Te-vEn/j-fiJjv 


E-l't:IU-(t 

t'-ruu-ov 

I'E-Tt'tl-q-X-a 

i-rt-rtfi-ij x-tiv 

vt-vou-it 
£-rt-i6}i-uv 


h-ltlH-d.U^V 

t-iauon/^' 

rt-rt'u-^-fua 

h-ii.-rcn-i l -u) l P 







128 CONTEACTED VERBS. §98. 



§98. CONTRACTED VERBS. 

251. — Verbs in -doo, -giro, and -oco, contract the concurrent 
vowels in the present and imperfect in all the voices, according 
to the general rules* of contraction, 116. See paradigm, § 100. 

All the concurrences of vowels to be found in these verbs, are 
the following ; viz. 



1. Verbs m 


-uco, -aco, 


-as, 


-ao, 


■ay, 


-asi, 


-<*y> 


-aoi, 


-aov, — 8. 


contr. 


-co, 


-a, 


-00, 


-a, 


-v> 


i' 


-o), 


-COt 


2. Verbs in 


-£00, -SCO, 


-ss, 


-so, 


■■ST}, 


-SSI, 


-k> 


-sot, 


-sov, = 8. 


contr. 


-CO, 


-si, 


-ov, 


% 


-si, 


1' 


-01, 


-ov. 


3. Verbs in 


-boo, -oco, 


-OS, 


-00, 


-07], 


-osi, 


-on, 


-OOl, 


-oov, — 8, 


contr. 


-co, 


-ov, 


-ov, 


-oo, 


-01, 


-01, 


-Ol, 


-ov. 



Obs. 1. Of the above concurrent vowels (No. 2), dissyllables 
in sco contract only ss and ssi ; thus, nXss, nXssiv, nXkxs, &c, are 
usually contracted nXsT, nXsiv, tzXsits, &c, but nXsoo, nXso^sv, 
&c, are never contracted. Exc. Asco, to bind, commonly con- 
tracts all. 

Obs. 2. Four verbs in aco contract as into r\, and asi into 77. 
These are t,dco, nsivaco, di\pdco, and %odofiai ; thus, 

Indie. £dsig, £dsi, £dszov, s^asg, h%as, &c. Inf. L,dsiv. 
contr. lyg, fg, \ytov, styg, sty, u £/>, &c. 

And so of the others. 

252. DORIC AND IONIC FORMS. 

Obs. 3. The Dorics, who in other cases use a for r if in verbs 
make use of t], without 1 subscript, instead of all contractions of 
asi and ssi ; as, botjv for oqkv ; xoGfiyv for xoGfisTv. Also, as 
was usually contracted by them into rj ; as, ToXpyrs for ToXpdsrs. 

The Ionic dialect often converts a, in verbs in aco, into s ; as, 

oqsco, OQtofisr, for bodoo, bodoiisv ; XQsszai for iqdsrai. 

253. HOMERIC FORM. 

Obs. 4. The Epic writers, on account of the metre, often insert 
the kindred long or short vowel before the contracted vowel ; as, 

bodsiv, contr. boav, Poet, bodav ; bodoo, contr. bgco, Poet, 00600. 
Participle fern, jjfidovoa, contr. yfiooGa, Poet. yficocoGa, &c. 

This, from the frequency of its occurrence in Homer, is some- 
times called the Homeric form. 



§98. EXPLANATION OF TABLE. 129 

Note. — By a little attention to practice, and applying the rules 
(116) to the preceding contractions, a paradigm of contract verbs is 
unnecessary ; still a table of contract verbs is inserted in its place, 258, 

Moo. 



254,— EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE. 

1. The tense-root in the subjunctive (being the same as in the indica- 
tive, but without the augment), is to be prefixed to the " terminations" 
in the optative, imperative, infinitive, and participles. 

2. Whenever the accent (') falls on the termination, it is marked in 
the following table in its proper place. When it does not fall on the 
termination, its place will be the third syllable from the end of the 
word, if the last syllable be short, or the diphthong at, which is con- 
sidered short. But if the last syllable be long, the accent will be on 
the syllable next the last ; as, rirvqa, rtrvqio), <fcc. 

3. In the perfect and pluperfect passive, the characteristic n in all 
the moods is put with the termination, to show the changes it undergoes 
by the laws of euphony, when combined with the initial consonant of 
the termination. In combining the root in these ni">>ds with the termi- 
nation, Rules 2, and 6, and 17 of jj ti, most he obserred See also £ 101, 
10. But if the tables of terminations, |j 92, and the method of forming 
the tenses, § 03, are perfectly committed to memory, and rendered fa- 
miliar to the pupil by thorough drilling, it will hardly ever be neces- 
sary to take him into this table at all. 

4. The numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., to be fouud in the following table, refer 
to the same numbers, j; L01. 

X. B. By inspection of the table, it will be seen that the termina- 
tions of the subjunctive mood are the same in all the tenses, and those 
of the optative and imperative are nearly the same in all, except in the 
1 aorist. Attention to this will greatly lessen the iabour of committing 
the verb to memory. 



130 



TABLE OF THE VEKB 



§99. 



255.— §99. L TABLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 







INDICATIVE. 








SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Tense-root. Terminations 




T-root. 


Terminations. 






1. 


2. 


3. 




1. 2. 


3. 


Pres. 


S. 


TU7TT -ft), 


-6IS, 


-«, 


rxntr 


-ft). -7?S, . 


-V' 




L). 




-eTo»/, 


-6T0J', 




-7?TO^, 


-7}T0V, 




P. 


-o/xev, 


-6T€, 


-ouct. 




-CU/16V, -7JT6, 


-wai. 


Imp. 


S. 
D. 


%-TVTTT "OV, 


-€Toy, 












P. 


-Ofl€V, 


-6T€, 


-ov. 








Fut. 


S. 
D. 


TXlty -ft), 


-6T0V, 


-et, 
-eTov, 


Tlty- 


Wanting. 






P. 


-0/U6V, 


-6T6, 


-ou<ri. 








1 Aor. 


S. 


e-Tu^ -a, 


-OS, 


-6, 4 


Ttty 


-«, -ps, 


~V> 




u. 




-OTOI', 


-a.TT]V, 




-7JTOJ/, 


-nrov. 




p. 


-o/xei/, 


-OT6, 


-av. 




-W/J.ZV, -7)Te, 


-axri. 


2 Aor. 


s. 


6-TW7T -Or, 


-es, 


-6, 4 


TI/7T 


-o»i *??*> 


-v> 




D. 




-€TOV, 


-€T17V, 




-7JTOJ', 


-7]T0V, 




P. 


-ofiev, 


-6T6, 


-ov. 




-wfjLev, -qre, 


-o><n. 


Perf. 


s. 


ri-Tv<p -a, 


-OS, 


-e, 


T6-TU<£ 


-«, -T7S. 


V 




JL>. 




•O.TOV, 


-O.TOV, 




-7JTOV, 


-■qrov, 




P. 


-a/uep, 


-OT6, 


-aai. 




-*>^e*', -Trre, 


-wat. 


Plup. 


S. 
D. 


£-Te-TlKp -€tV, 


-€IS, 

-6JT0J', 


-cItvv, 










P. 


-€1{JL€V, 


-eiT€, 


-€io~aw. 








2 Perf. S. 


ri-rvrr -a, 


-as, 


-e, 


Ti-Tinr 


-o>, -ris, 


•V' 




L). 




-arov, 


-OTOJ/, 




-nrov, 


•■nrov, 




P. 


-OJU6J/, 


-are, 


-<*«. 




-U/J-eV, -7JT6, 


-axri. 


2 Plup 


. S. 
D. 


^-T6-TU7T -€W, 


-6tT0J/, 












P. 


-eijttej/ 


-6JTC, 


-eto-ay. 









£ 99. 



TX THE ACTIVE VOICE. 



131 



TABLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

'Otfil, -ois, 1 -oi 

-oitov, -o'ni)v, 

-OlU(V, -01T6, -OKI/. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 
2. 3. 

-«., -(TCD, 
-(TOV, -€TO)V, 

-ere, -(Twcrav.* 


INF. 

Term. 

-(IV? 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 
M. F. N. 

N. -uv, -ovaa, -ov, 
G. -ojtos, -ovo-ns, -OVTOS, 
D. -ovTi, -ovari, -okti.&C. 










-oi/jli, -ois, "Oi, 

-OITOV, -OlTTfV, 
-OI/jLCV, -OlT(, -QKV- 


Wanting. 


-(IV. 


N. -wv, -ovcra, -ov, 

G. -OVTOS, -OVO"r\S, -OVTOS, 

D. -ovri, -ovo~n, -ovTifScc. 


•at/ni, -ats, -at, 

-anov, -annv, 
-aiuev, -aire, -ai(v. 


-OV, -O.TO}, 

•arov, -oltuv, 
-ore, -OLTuaav. 


•at. 


N. -as, -acra, -av, 
(l.-avTos, -dans, -avros, 
D. -avri, -dan, -avTi,\.c. 


•otui, -ots, -oi, 

-OITOV, -OIT7JV, 

-oiixev, -one, -okv- 


-(, -(TW, 
•(TOV, -tTU)V, 

-ere, -(Tccaav. 


-(1v, 


N. -u>v, -ov(Ta, -6v, 
G. -6vros, ovo-ns, -6vros, 

D. -6vTl, -OVO~n, -6vTl,ScC. 


•OlUt, -ois, -01? 

-oitov, -o'itvv, 
-oi/nev, -oiTi, -okv. 


•(, -€TOJ, 
-6TOV, -(TUV, 
-(T(, -€TU)0~aV. 


-(vau. 


N. -civ, -urn, -o*?, 
G. -6tos, -vias, -6tos, 
D. -6ti, -via, •6ti,&lc. 










~oifii, -ois, -oi, 

-OITOV, -OlTT)V, 

-ointv, -one, -olfv. 


•(, -(TU, 
•(TOV, -(TU1V, 

-fT€, -tTwcrav- 


-(vat. 


N. -coy, -via, -6s, 
G. -6tos, -v7as, -6tos, 

D. -OT4, -UIO, -dVt. 









132 



TABLE OF THE VERB 



256. II. TABLE OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 

Tense-root. Terminations. 

1. 2. 3. 

Pres. S. rinrr -o/xai, -t;, 8 -6tcu, 
D. -6n&ov, -eff&oi/, -eff&ov, 

P. -6[ie&a, -etr&e, -ovrai. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

T-root. Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 



TVTTT -(DfJiai, 



-„8 



-&I1&OV, -ricr&ov, --noSov, 



Imp. S. 4-tvitt -6fii)v, -ov, s -ero, 
D. -o/xe&ov, -ea&ov, -eafrnv, 

P. -Sfieda, -eo&s, -ojto. 



Fut. S. Tity -opai, -p, 8 -eTcct, 

D. -6ia&ov, -ecr&ov, -€<r&ov, 

P. -6fie&a, -etr&e, -ovrai. 



Tlty- 



Wanting. 



1 Aor. S. ^-Tlrt// -dflTfV, -«, 8 -OTO, 



-vi.fj.iiy, -w, -«to, 

-dfx&ov, -aa&ov, -dcrfrnv, 
-a.fj.eda, -aa&e, -avro. 



-(tifX&OV, -T)Gh0V,-TI<T&0V, 

-<x>fj.eSa, -Tjcr&e, -«yTOi. 



2 Aor. S. c-TU7r -6\n\v, -ov,& -ero, 

D. -6fx&ov, -€(r&ov, -eafrnv, 

P. •6/X€&a, -6(T&€, -OVTO. 



tvtt -w/xai, -T?, 8 -7]Tai, 

-(Ofi&op, -r\crbov, -Tja&ov, 



Perf. S. Te-Tw -fifiai, -if/ai, -irro/, 10 
D. -fifiebov, -<p&ov, -<p&ov, 

P. -fji(i€&a,,-<p&€, -fMfievoielai. 

10(5) 



T6-TU -flfXiVOS &, ?jS, $, 11 

-flf\l€v<i> , ^TOP, T^TOI', 

-fXfj.evoi S/fxev, iji-e, Set. 



Plup. S. i-T€-r6-fXfi7]V, -IpO, -7TTO, 

D. -fj.fieSov, -Q&ou, -(pfrnv, 

P. -n/M&a, -ip&e, -fXfx.4voi ?j<rav. 

10(5) 



P.P.F.S. T6-Tlty -OfXCLl, -Tf, -€TO(, 

D. -<fyte&oj>, -€<r&ov,-*cr&oy, 

P. -6fie&a, -eff&e, -ovrai. 



re-rvrff 



Wanting. 



§99. 



IX THE MIDDLE VOICE. 



133 



TABLE OF THE MIDDLE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

•oifl7]V, -010? -OITO, 

-otfie&ov, -oicr&ov, -oio-frqv, 

-Ol/J.€&a, -Olffl&C, 'OIVTQ. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 

2. 3. 

-ov? -ear^u, 
-ecr&ov, -€0~&(dv, 
-co-&e, -ea&wcrav. 


INF. 

Term 
-ea&ai 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 

M. F. N. 

N.-<fyiei/os-, -77, -ou, 
G. -o/xevov, -tjs, -ou, 
D. -o/j.ev(f>, -n, -<j>. 










•oifirft/, 

-01/J.&OV, 


-OJO, 8 -ono, 
-oiabov, -oio-^rjv, 
-oio~&e, -oivro. 


Wanting. 


-€crdax 


N. -6flfV0S, -77, -ov, 
G. -OflfVOU, -7JS, -01*, 
D. -0/J.€V(f>, -77, -(p. 


-ai/j.&ov, 


-aiofi -airo, 
-aio-&ov,-alcrfrriv, 
-ataSf, -aivro. 


-0(, -UO-&W, 

-aahov, -dcrdwv, 
-eurde, -acribuaav. 


-aaSai. 


N. -d/J.fVOS, -7], -ov, 
G. -UfjLfVOV, -Tjr,-ou, 
D. -a/jLtvy, -T), -(f>. 


-olfiijr, 

-ol/ufbov, 


•OlO,* -OITO, 

-oia&ov, -oiV&tji/, 
-oia&t, -oivro. 


-ov? -toSw, 
-(0-&ov,-faSu>v, 
-htS(, -ta&uiaav. 


•(0-&UI 


N. -(i/Lieros, -17, -ojv, 
G. -o/ueVoo, -775,-01/, 

D. -OfJLfVCl>, -7), -Cf>. 


-flfJLCVOS fflJJ/, 

-fifievot ctriiJ.€V 


clrrrov, fl-qr-qv, 


-tyo, -<p&u, 

-(P&OV, -<p&U)V, 

-<p&e, -<pib<i>o~av. 


-<pbai 


N. -fJLfifVOSy-T), -ov t 
G. -LlflCVOV, -7)S, -ov, 
D.-fx/j.4ycf}, -rj, -<?. 










• oi/xrfv, 

•oi/xebov, 

-oifieba, 


'Oio? -ono, 
•otff&ov,-olcrfrriv, 
-oia&e, -oitno. 


Wanting. 


-ea&ai 


N. -6fAfvos, -77, -or, 

G. -OflfVOV, -7/s-, -ov, 
D.-0/j.evcp, -7), - v . 



184 



TABLE OF THE VERB 



§99 



257. III. TABLE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 

Tense-root. Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

Pies. S. TV1TT -O/JLCU, -?? ; 8 -6TCU, 

D. -6fi€&ov,-e<r&ov,-€o-&oi/, 
P. -6(j.e&a, -ea&e, -ovrui. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

T-root. Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

TU7TT -wfiai, -?7, 8 -TJTat, 

-c&pe&ov, -ya&ov, -noSov 
-ttS/xe&a, -yade -wvTai. 


Imp. S. 4-tvitt -6fiyv, -ov, 8 -ero, 

D. -6/AeSov,-€o-ibov,-€o f &wv, 
P. -6/u.e^a, -€(T(^€, -ovro. 






1 Fut. S.Tv<p&T]0--oixai, -tj? -€Tat, 
Vt P« -6(x^a, -€<r&e, -oj/tcu. 


Tvcp&na- 

Wanting. 


2 Fut. S^ , Tvirr)o- - ojxai , •»?? .8 ^ -erai, 
a. _. P. -6u.&a, -eix&e, -ovtcu. 


TU7ri7<r- 

Wanting. 


l'Aor. S. l-Tv(pfr-r\v, -y^'\-y, 

D. -t}tov, -T)rr\v, 
P. "nfiev, -7jT€, -naav. 


TV<p&U>, -rjs, 

-rjTov, 

•W/J.CV, "7JT€, 


-7JTOV, 
-fcXTi. 


2 Aor. S. e-Twir -7jv, -rjs, -?j, 

D. -TJTOV, -7)t7]V, 

P. -ypev, -Tre, -yaav. 


TUT -«, -7?S, 

-t)tov, 


•t)tov, 
-wet. 


Perf. S. t€-tu -fifiat, -tyat, -irreu, 10 
D. -fifiebop, -(p&ov, -<p&ov, 
P. -jtijue&a, -(p&e, -fifieuoielai. 

10(5) 


T€-Tv-fiiJ.€vos &, ys, j}, 11 
-/jiti.evoiZfxev, ?)Te, Sxri. 


Plup. S.i-Te-TV-/J.flT]V, -\pO, -7TTO, 

D. -uiAe&oVi-cp&OP, -(/>&?}*', ' 

P. -/jL/x&a, -tp&e, -fifievot Tjaav. 

10(5) 




P.P.F- S. t€-tui|/ -o^tcu, -??, 8 -6Tat, 
D. -6fie&oi',-*(r&ov,-€(r&ov, 
P. -6fxe&a, -€<r&c, -ovtcu. 


T6-TU^- 

Wanting 



§99. 



IX THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



135 



TABLE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

-olfnjy, -OlO? -OlTo, 

'olfie&oy, -oiabov, -oiafrnv, 
-oi/ie&a, -oia&c, -oivro. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 
2. 3. 

-OV, -CO~d(i>, 

•co-<$ov,-fo-&wy, 


INF. 

Term. 
-eoScu. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 
M. F. N. 
N.-6fxevos, -n, -ov, 

G.-OfifVOV, -7]S, -ov, 

D.-o/xevcp, -r), -u>. 










'Oifirjy, 'Oio? -oito, 
-oififboy, -oia&ov, -oiofrt]v, 
-oi/uLcda, -oio~*be, -oivro. 


Wanting. 


-co&cu. 


N.-6/jicvos, 
G.-oficyov, 
D.-o/zeVy, 


-y> -ov, 
-ns, -ov, 


-oiyn^v, -oio? -oito, 
-oifxc^ov, -oiobov, -oiafrriv, 
•oifU&O, -otadt, -oivro. 


Wanting. 


-toSai 


N.-J^€j'or, 
G.-ouevov, 
D.-ofitytp, 


-7J, -LV, 

-l\s, -ou, 

"?l 'V- 


'fil)V, -tirj^y "•toll 

-6l7)TOV, -fJTJTIJI/, 

-UrffJLfV, -c'trjrc, -f'njiTav. 


-7JTOV, • 

-nr*, -rjrua'av. 


-rivai. 


N.- f ( s , 

G. -tyros, 
D -tini, 


■tier a, -tv, 
-fiays ,-*vros, 
■c'tfrn, -tvri. 


-fiTJJ/, "flTjy, -€J7J, 

-ci-nrov, -tir\rt)v, 
•c'u)H(y, -eirjTf, -cir)o~av. 


-r)&i, -rjra}, 
-nrov, -rrrwv, 
-rjTf, -iyroiaav. 


-yyat. 


G.-eVroi, 
D.-tvri, 


•ticra, -tv, 
elo-r)s,-cvTos, 
tiarp, -tvri. 


-fifieyos eXt]v, ffrjs, «ftj, n 
•fxfifvu — , t1r)Toy,fir}T7)y, 
-/jLHtyoi*tTiH(y,ttr]Tt, ttrjaav 


-\j/o, -<p&u, 
•<pdov, -<t>Su>y, 
-0df, -(pSwffav. 


-<p&cu. 


N.-^i/icVor, 

G.-fiUtVOV, 
D.-jXUtVW, 


-t\, -ov, 

-7JJ, -OV, 

-J), -ty. 








•olixvy, -oio, -oito, 
-oi/xeSoy, -oioS&oy, -olofrnv t 
-oifi.&a, -oiai&e, -oitno. 


Wanting. 


•cabat. 


N.-6(i*vos, 
G.-opeyov, 
D.-o}iiyct>, 


-1, -ov, 
-Tjy, -ov, 



136 



CONTRACT VERBS. 



§100. 





258.— § 100. CONTRACT VERBS.- 


—Active. 




Present. 


rifji- 




(pll- 


8 n l- 




s. 


d<a 


-<y 


£o) 


-0) 


6m 


-to 


lad. 


D. 


aetq 

dtb 

atxov 


-aq 
-a 

-dxov 


eii,q 
itv 

kixov 


-tiq 
-tl 

-tlxov 


otuq 

Oil 

otxov 


-01% 

-ol 
-ovxov 






aexov 


-arov 


ttxov 


-uxov 


oixov 


-ovxov 




P. 


aoptv 
dhXi 


-0)f.liV 

-axe 


eo/iiv 
etxt 


-OVfltV 

-tlxt 


OOjillV 
OIXt 


-ov/tiv 
-ovxt 






aovat, 
dot 


-WOT. 


iovav 


-ov&i. 


OOC(Tt 


-ot'fft. 




S. 


im 


-0) 


OOJ 


-0) 


Subj. 


D. 
P. 


di\ 
drjxov 

dtjXOV 

dd)fitv 

drjxt 

do)Gt> 


-aq 
-a 

-dxov 
-dxov 

-MjHtV 

-axe 

-toff* 


it]Xov 

UJTOV 

£o)f* tv 
itjxi 

ECOfft 


- ?i s 

-n 

-tjxov 

-T]xov 
-omtv 
-tjxt 

-(HOT* 


OJfi 

otjxov 

OljXOV 
OitifltV 

6t;xt 
oo) at 


-Otq 
-ot 

-onov 
-oixov • 

-0)f(fV 

-MXt 

-Wfft 




S. 


dot>[ii> 
do^q 


-MfXl 

-we 


iot/,ioi> 
ioiq 


-otui 
-oiq 


OOI>JHI> 

oouq 


-olfJ.b 

-olq 




D. 


aov 


-(>) 


eot 


-OL 


000 


QV 


Opt. 




aoixov 


-oxov 


iovtov 


-oixov 


OOlTOV 


-OITOV 




P. 


aoixi]V 
doifitv 


-unrjv 

-WfX tv 


toixtjv 
zoifxtv 


-OlXt(V 
-OlfltV 


ooixr/v 

OOVfltV 


-OITTjV 
-Ol f I IV 






aon"f 


-0)Xt 


ioixt 


-0(Tf 


oouxt 


-oixt 






(XOMV 


-o>?v 


iottv 


-OltV 


OOitV 


-ouv 




S. 


at 


-a 


tt 


-tu 


Of 


-01' 






atTW 


-«TW 


ttxto 


-ftXO) 


o£ro 


-Ol'XO) 


Imp. 


D. 


aerov 


-axov 


tiXOV 


-uxov 


oixov 


-OIXOV 




aixoiv 


-axo>v 


texo)V 


-tlXU)V 


OETWV 


-oi'xo)v 




P. 


atxt 


-axt 


stxt 


-tixt 


OIXt 


-ovxt 






atxwaav 


-axwaav 


texMaav -tixwaav 


osxcoaav 


-ovxioaav 


inf. 




da,v 


-av 


itw 


-ciV 


OliV 


-ovv 


Part. 


M. 
P. 


dovo~a 


-0)V 

-MOa 


eovoa 


-(7)v 
-ovaa 


oovaa 


-ova a 




N. 


aov 


-(lYV 


tOV 


-ovv 


oov 


-ovv 



Imperf. 


iri[i- 


icpd- 




idqX- 




s. 


aov -o)V 


tov 


-ovv 


OOV 


-OVV 






atq -aq 


tiq 


-**s 


Ofq 


-ovq 






as -a 


ft 


-ft. 


Of 


-ov 




D. 












InJ. 




atxov -axov 


itxov 


-tlxov 


oVtov 


'OVTOV 






aexqv -axr\v 


lEXfjV 


-tixrjv 


oexqv 


-ovxijv 




p. 


aofiiv -(Ofjitv 


toptv 


-OVfitV 


OO /Li IV 


-OVftlV 




aixt -axt 


&IXI 


-sixe 


OiXl 


-ovxt 






aov -tair 


tov 


-ovv 


OOV 


-*yv 



§100. 



CONTRACT VERBS. 



137 



CONTRACT WEBBS.— Middle and Passive. 



Tl\l- 



aofiai, 

dl\ 

dtrai 
adfitOo* 

dfaOoV 

diaOov 
ad fit Oat, 
dta&t 
dovrat, 
do) ft at, 

CLf] 
OUJTCtt. 

ao')fitOov 
dtjaOov 

diaOov 

ato/ttOa 
dt t aOt 

dlDVTOU 



-a 
-drat, 

-o')fttOo* 

-daOov 

-daOov 

-o')fitOa 

-da&t 

-uivrai, 



Qf.lt.- 



10 ft at, 

■ H 
I tfTa» 

j tOfltOot 

itaOov 
itaOov 
tomOa 
itaOt 

tOl'TCU, 



-MflOLU 

-d 
•drat, 

-d)fltOoV 

-daOov 
-daOov 
-tofttOa 
-da Of 

-(OVTCtt, 



aoifiTjv 

dot.o 

aOLTO 

aoifttOov 

doiaOov 

aolaOtjv 

aoifttOa 

dot-aOt 

cunvro 



aov 
ntaO-o) 

diaOov 

icta.'hov 
dta&t 

CtfCFihnOCtV 



-<OlU t V 

-0)0 

■WTO 

-t/)fttOoV 

-oiaOoV 

-toaOrjv 
-titutOa 
-o>aOt 
-oivro 
-<7> 

-daOto 
daOov 
-da&iov 
-da Ot 
-daOtoaav 



at a Oat, 

aofitvoq 
aotilvtj 
aouivov 



-da Oat, 
-o'uttvoq 
-(•)uivtj 
-o'tittrov 



— I 



-ov/tat, 

'fl 

-i-lTCtL 

-o rut Gov 
-tTnOov 

-ttaOoV 

-ovftt&a 

-ttaOt 

-ovvrcu 



lojfictt, 

iTJTCCI, 
tOHttOoV 

irjaOov 

irjaOov 

HOfit&a 

t^aOt 

(tovrat, 



-OtflOU, 

i 

-tjTav 

fO/UtOoV 

■r t aOov 
-raOov 
-d)ii tOa 
■r t aOt 
•Afttu 



tOlfl^V 

t'oto 

tOLTO 

toijutOov 

toisrOov 

toiaOrjv 

lOiaOt 
tOLVTO 



IOV 

ttaOo) 

ftaOoV 

tiaOtov 
it a Of 

tiaOo>aaV 



-oinrv 
Oil) 
-01 TO 

-oltttOov 

■oiaOov 

-oiaOtjv 

-tnntOa 

-otaOt 

■oivro 

-OV 

-tiaOto 
•tlff&OV 

-tiaO-tov 
-tla!)* 

-tiaOtoaav 



ha Oat, 



-tie Oat, 



lOfuvot; 

tonivrj 
tOttfVOV 



-ovittvuq 

-or/iirr] 

-tivutvov 



drl- 



oofiat, 

6r\ 

otrai 

oopt&ov 

otaOov 

otaOov 

oofttOa 

ota&t 

oovrat, 



-oi/uat, 

-or 

-or rat 

•oi'fit&ov 

-ova*9ov 

-ovaOov 

-oi'fttOa 

-ova Ot 

-oTvrat, 



oo) fiat, 
Of 

6t;rat, 

00) ft tQ-QV 

otjaOov 
6t,a0ov 
oo\ii. f0 a 
otjaOt 
6o)vrav 



-oi/tat, 

~oi 

-orrat, 

-WfttOov 

-o,aOov 

-o>a&ov 

~o')ftfO-a 

-OHT&t 

Srteu v* 



OOlfttjV 

ooto 

001,70 

ooii't&ov 
ootaOov 
ooiaOr t v 
oointOa 
6 ma Of 

OOIVTO 



■OlflTJV 

-olo 



-oi/ttOov 

-oTaOov 

-oiaOtjv 

-oif/tOa 

-ota Ot 

-oivro 



£+ 



OOJ' 

oiaOo) 

6;a0ov 

oiaOiov 

otaOt 

oiaOo>aav 

otaOai, 



■ov 

-m'aOo) 

-oxaOov 

-ovaOtnv 

•oTaOt 

■ovaOmaav 

-ota Oat, 



ooftfroq 

00 It tVf] 
OOfliVOV 



-ovftfvoq 

-otfdvri 

■ov/itvov 



irifA,- 




tqil- 


idql- 


aoutjv 


-o')fttjv 


tOftljV 


-OVftlJI 


OOfJTjV 


oi'firjv 


aov 


-0) 


Hit' 


-01 > 


UtIV 


-ov 


at-ro 


-aro 


ttro 


-^tTO 


OfTO 


-01 TO 


aoutrOov 


-otinOoV 




-Oil, u fOov 


oofjtfOov 


-ovfAtOov 


dtaOov 


-daOov 




-flaOov 


ofaOov 


-ovaOov 


aia&rp> 


-daOrjv 


fiaOyv 


-fiaOrjv 


ota Or} v 


-ovaOrjv 


aofitOa 


-«')iitO-a 


tottfO-a 


-oiutOa 


oo/tiOa 


-ov,utOa 


dtaOe 


-da Of. 


itaOt 


-tiaOf 


oiaOi 


-ova&t 


aovro 


■ojvro 


lOl'TO 


-OVVTO 


oovro 


•ovrto 



138 OBSERVATIONS ON" § 101. 



§ 101. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. 

259. — The following observations are designed to point out 
more particularly, certain changes in the terminations of these 
parts which frequently occur, and which, without explanation, 
might perplex and retard the student in his progress. Further 
information respecting these and other changes will be found in 
the table of dialects which follows. See 274. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

260. OPTATIVE. 

1. In the optative mood, instead of the usual terminations -oifii, 
-oig, -oi, &o. the Attic dialect has the following : 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

-oiqv, -otyg, -o«y ; -otyzov, -oujrrjv\ -oiypsv, -oiyre, -oirfiav. 

This form is also used by Ionic and Doric writers. 
In the optative of the 1 aor. active, instead of the common 
termination -atp, -aig, -ca, <fec. the u^Eolic has as follows : 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

-eia, -stag, -sie ; -etarov, -eidryv ; -siafxsv, -eiccte, -star. 

The Attics, as well as the Ionians and Dorians, use this form 
in the 2d and 3d persons singular, and in the 3d person plural. 

261. — IMPERATIVE. 

2. In the 3d person plural of the imperative, in Attic writers, 
the termination ovtoav is more common than hasoav ; thus, in 
the present, tvnxovtmv for rvnTszooaav. For other varieties, see 
Table of Dialects, 274. This form is also met with in Doric 
writers. 

2 62. — INFINITIVE. 

3. The infinitive, in the ancient dialects, ended in Sfisvcu. It 
was changed, in the Ionic, into epsv ; and afterwards, the /* being 
rejected, was contracted by the Attics into eiv. 

263. IMFERFECT AND AORISTS. 

4. The ./Eolians and Dorians use a peculiar form of the im- 
perfect, and first and second aorists, which is made by adding the 
syllable xov, to the usual form of the 2d person singular, and then 
inflecting them like the imperfect; thus, instead of hum-or, -eg, 



§ 10 i. THE THREE VOICES. 139 

-£, <fec. ; it makes irvnzzGx-ov, -eg, -£, &c. ; in the 1 aor. hvijtaox- 
op t -tg, -£, <fec M and in the 2d aor. irvneax-ov, -tg, -e, &c. Hence 
the same tenses in the middle jroice, and the imperfect, io the 
passive, make hvnxmx-o^v, -ov, -tio, 3d plural ovzn. 

Obs. 1. But before the endings -xor, -xtg, -xe, <fcc in con- 
tracted verbs, diphthongs reject the subjunctive vowel, and in 
verbs in \a, the loug vowels are chauged into their own short ones ; 
as, 2 sing, inoitig, ItiqUgxov ; izi&rjg, IzUfeGxov, &c. 

Obs. 2. This form is used only in the indicative mood ; it usu- 
ally rejects the augment, and is scarcely to be found, except in 
the singular number and 3d person plural. It is used only to ex- 
pros repeated action. 

204. FUTURE, ACTIVE AND MIDDLE. 

The Future in the dialects has the following varieties . 

(1.) The Attics often reject a from clgco, egco, igco, ogco, con- 
tracting the remaining vowels when that can be done; as, iXttGco, 
I will drive, reject g, iXdco y contracted iha ; so iXaGttg, iXuaig, 
contracted iXag, <fcc. In like manner we have xaXco for xaXtaco 
I will call ; outrun for oixtigcq, I will pity ; and in the middle 
\ "!<•••. ofwvficu for Qfioaofiai. 

(_'.) Attic Futures in ico are inflected like contract verbs in 
609 (251, or 258), thus, -tea, -mg, -id; -mizov, &C. 

(3.) 2 is sometimes elided from the future active and middle 
of pure verba, especially among the poets, even when gco is pre- 
ceded by a long vowel or diphthong; as, present ^'co, future %£v- 
G(o, or %tva). 

(4.) For gco, the Doric termination is £co ; as, yeXdza) for 
yth'cGd). 

(:>.) Verbs in ftco, vco, have the future Ionic in ton uncontract- 
td (see 273-1); as, vt[i±co for vtficb ; fievt'co for fxevd). 

(6.) Verbs in qco, in Homer, commonly insert g ; as, oqgoj 
for oqojj I will excite; sometimes also verbs in X<n ; as, eXcco 
from t'X(o\ xtKGO) from xtXXco. 

(7.) The Attic and Ionic termination, particularly of liquid 
verbs, is often /Jdoa ; as, fiuXXtjGw for 0aX(o, I will cast; iai(>yG<o 
for x u Q™> I W '*M rejoice. 

In mutes, Tvizzyaw is used for rvipoo, I will strike. 

265. PERFECT INDICATIVE. 

5. a. Some verbs suffer a syncope in the perfect; thus, 
xa/j-co I call xuX/jgco xsxdXrjxa xtxXrjxa 

Iu like manner dtdtfii { xu. d&fapta 

xexapupca x(x\A,r\xa., <fec 



140 OBSERVATIONS ON §101. 

b. Some perfects in qxa, from verbs in dco, strike out x before 
a, and (except in the participles) change t} into a ; thus, 

from §dco ^i^xa /ftjjftaa 

from zXdco zizXr^xa zizXaa, <fcc. 

c. Of the vowels thus brought together, the latter is sometimes 
rejected; as, 

fieftfaafiEi' fiefiaauev by syncope fitfiafiev 

ZEzXi\xEvai zEzXdsvai by syncope zizXavai 

In other verbs, the Attics sometimes change e into o ; thus, 

ZQE71CO I turn ZQEXpCO zEzqocpa 

d. A similar change has taken place in the Ionic-Doric Xt- 
Xoyya, from (Xfyco), Xdyyco (Xay%dvco) y analogous to Xjjfico, Xdpjjco, 
Xa^dvco. Thus also nenoGys is found for 7itnao%E. 

266. PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE, &C. 

6. The subjunctive and optative of the perfect are sometimes 
made by a periphrasis of the perfect participle and the verb ei(il, 
I am ; thus, subjunctive zszvcpcog co, yg, y ; zszvcpoze yzov, &c. ; 
optative zszvcpcbg erqv y e'fyg, sty. And sometimes the indicative ; 
as, zszvcpcog EOO[iai, I shall have struck. 

267. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

*7. The participles sometimes change q into a, and sometimes 
not. 

In either case, by a syncope of the former vowel, r ( cog and acog 
are changed into cog, which remains also in the neuter ; and the 
feminine, which otherwise ends in m, becomes coaa, and, in the 
oblique cases of the masculine and neuter, co is retained ; thus, 

Uncontracted. Contracted. 

(tefirjxcog fiefia-cog -via -6g flefi-tog -tooa -cog G. -cOzog 

ze&vrjxoag ze&vTj-wg -via -6g ze&v-tog -coca -cog -tozog 

kozr\xtog sGzrj-tog -via -6g ) 

or, ^ > soz-cog -cooa -cog -tozog 

sozaxcog soza-cog -via -6g ) 

a. The Ionics and Attics insert s before cog ; thus, soz-ecag, 
-ecoaa, -scog, G. -scozog. But in the poets, the ordinary termina- 
tions frequently remain after the contraction; as, sore-tog, -via, 
-6g, G. sazs-bzog, &c. 

b. The perfects in which these changes most frequently occur 
are zezXyxa, ze&vqxa, (le(iqxa, sozqxa ; and in these the regular 



§ 101. THE THREE VOICES. 141 

form is more common in the singular, and the contracted form, 
in the dual and plural. 

MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 
268. — 2d person singular. 

8. The 2d person singular of the present indicative originally 
ended in eaai. In the Ionic dialect, the a being rejected, it be- 
came eat, by diaeresis eat, and was afterwards contracted into y 
(116, R. III.) ; sometimes by the Attics into si ; and in the same 
manner, in other moods and tenses. In the subjunctive ijgcu be- 
came r\ai, and then rj. In the imperative, the indicative imperfect, 
and 2 Aorist, ego became so, contracted ov ; and in the 1 aorist 
middle aco became «o, contracted co. In like manner, in the 2d 
person singular of the optative, oigq became oio, and, being inca- 
pable of further change by contraction, remains in this form. 

269 IMPERATIVE, 3D PEKSON PLURAL. 

9. In the 3d person plural of the imperative, the Ionic, Doric, 
and especially the Attic writers, use the termination (ov instead 
of wear; thus, zvnzta&cov for rvnitaOwGuv. See Table of Dia- 
lects, 274. 

270. PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT PASSIVE. 

10. The terminations of the perfect and pluperfect passive, 
cannot be correctly represented in any paradigm of a mute verb, 
because the termination, combining with the final mute of the 
root, undergoes various changes, according to the laws of eu- 
phony (§ 6), which causes an apparent, but not a real variety in 
the terminations of these tenses. For the terminations alone, see 
231. 

(1.) The terminations preceded by a rc-raute, as in the para- 
digm, according to the laws which regulate the combination of 
consonants, combine with it as there exhibited; viz. 

S. rtivfifiat, 45-9 ztzvxput, 44-6 jetvtztcu 

D. ZEZVfifAExTOV " 7EZV(f&OV ZtZVty&OV, 43-2, 47-17 

P. TETvunE&a " zEzvqlh zezv\i[levoi. eigL 

(2.) Preceded by a x-mute, they combine as follows : 

S. ItUyiica hleha, 44-7 XeIexzcu, 43-2 

D.XtlEyfie&ov W.ex&ov Uky&or, 43-2, 47-17 

P. Xeleyiis&a W.t%&£ XEfeypEvoi uttf 

(3.) A T-mute before a consonant in the passive voice, is 



142 OBSERVATIONS ON § 101. 

changed into o% and combines with the terminations of the per- 
fect and pluperfect without change, except where the termination 
begins with o", in which case the r-mute before it is rejected 
(47, 17. Obs. 9) ; thus, nsi&m for example in the perfect indica- 
tive passive is inflected as follows : 

S. TteTzeiGficu, 46-11 nmeiaai, 44-8 nmzixixai 

D. Timdaiied-ov TZtnm&ov ninetcd-ov, 44-8 

P. TZSTTElGfiSd'a 7187181(5^8 7187181(5 \H8V 01 8toi 

(4.) Liquid verbs whose characteristic is X or g t in the perfect 
passive, add the terminations to the root without change, except 
that those beginning with o&, drop the a (47-1 V). Those whose 
characteristic is \i insert q before the terminations (§ 97, 3, Exc). 
Of those whose characteristic is v dissyllables in eivoo, ivco, vr(o 
reject v (244-4), and then annex the terminations without change. 
But when v is retained it is changed sometimes into fi — more 
commonly into a before the terminations beginning with /x, and 
is rejected before those beginning with o&. Before the other ter- 
minations it remains unchanged ; thus, cpaivo) in the perfect indi- 
cative passive is inflected as follows : 
S. 7Zsq)an(jLca, or Tzicpaofiai 7tsq>avaai nicpavrai 

D. Tzeqiapfis&ov Tzsydafie&ov Ttetyaa&ov myaa&ov 
P. nsqidfifieda, 7ieq)(x,6fi8&a 7T8Cpao~&8 naqjaGfiivoi elm 

Note. Before the terminations beginning with a&, v sometimes re- 
mains, and a is rejected ; as, 7t£<pav&nv neqav&a &c. for niyaa&ov, ni- 
giaa&e, &c. 

(5.) In all mute and liquid verbs, except some dissyllables in 
eivoo, ivoj, vvo3 (244-4), as the terminations vzai in the third per- 
son plural of the perfect, and vzo of the pluperfect, cannot coa- 
lesce with the root, the circumlocution of the perfect participle 
with em and qaav, are substituted ; thus, zezvfifitvoi (at) em for 
zezvtzvzcu ; jjyyelpevoL (ai) eigi, for i'jyyeXvzai. — But in pure verbs, 
this circumlocution is unnecessary, as the terminations vzai and 
vzo readily unite with the characteristic vowel of the root preced- 
ing ; as, zeziiirjvzai,, from zifidoa ; iTzscpilrjvzo from cpOJeo. To 
these are to be added those liquid verbs which drop v before the 
terminations of the perfect ; as, zszarzai from zstrco ; xe'xgivzai 
from xqlvcq, <fec. (244-4). 

271. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE OF PERFECT PASSIVE. 

11. The subjunctive and optative being distinguished from the 
indicative only by the mood-vowels, and there being no mood- 
vowels in the termination of the perfect passive, it is necessary, 



§ 101. THE THREE VOICES. 143 

for the sake of distinction, to adopt the circumlocution of the 
perfect participle with the subjunctive and optative of si(u\ as in 
the table of terminations 231, or in the paradigm of the verb 257. 

But if the termination in the perfect and pluperfect passive is 
preceded by a vowel, the circumlocution in the subjunctive and 
optative moods, as exhibited in the paradigm, becomes unneces- 
sary ; and these moods are formed as in observations 3 and 4, 
following. 

Obs. 3. In the Subjunctive, the vowel preceding the termina- 
tion is dropped, and the terminations of the present subjunctive 
annexed ; thus, perfect nECpiXij-fiui, subjunctive mtyikwiiai, -tj f 
yzat, &c. ; perfect xtxQifica ; subjunctive xtxQ-ooftai, -\j, -nzai. 

Exc. But verbs in oco, frequently retain «, as a mood- vowel, 
through all the numbers and persons ; as, Stdr^wfica, -cp, -6jzai t 
<fcc. 

Obs. 4. The Optative adds the terminations iu;i, o (viz. from 
go), ro, to the characteristic of the tense, with i interposed after «, 
and subscribed with n or w ; thus, 

XEXQl-UI^' XtXQl-0 XtXQl~TO, (fee. 

XsXv-tm W.v-o ).t).v-jo, <fec. 

ixTCU-fUp> tXZUl-O tXZCU-70, (fee 

Trecfihyit^y ntyD.tj-o TTtq ihj-jo, <fec. 

dbdrp.w-fit^' dtdfico-o dtd/ ( ).co-zo y (fee. 

In a few instances, the Bubjnnctive couui is made co^v in the 
optative, and the w retained throughout ; thus, fii^rr t u(u has the 
subjunctive ut)tnou(a f and tlie optative fUfnwfUpr, fttfircoo f /«'- 

/.ll'CQZO, <kc 

Xote. Both in the subjunctive and optative, however, these forms 
are but sold- an used, the circumlocution being generally preferred. 

27 2. IONIC AND DORIC FORMS. 

12. In the Ionic and Doric dialects, v before -tat and -to, in 
terminations of these tenses in the 3d person plural, is changed 
into «, so that vzai becomes area; and vzo y uzo\ thus, XeXvrrtu 
becomes XeXvcctcu ; XtXvvzo, XeXvazo, <kc. 

06s. 5. A TT-mute or a x-mute before azou and ato, for viru 
and vro, is changed into its own aspirate ; as, rstvcf-azai., letiy- 
azau for ■ztzvx-rzai, le/Jy-vzai, (fee. 

Obs. C. As the circumlocution lezvutitroi eioi is used to avoid 
the cacophony of the regular termination, rtrvyvzai (10. (o) 
above), this being removed by the change of v into ft, the circum- 
locution in the indicative, of all such verbs, becomes unnecessary. 



144 DIALECTS OF VERBS IN m AND [U. §102. 

Thus, TETviifitvoi elai, is changed into teivgjatai ; Xeleyfisvoi eiai, 
into leXsxaTcu, &c. 

Obs. 7. If (7 (changed from a r-mute, 235, R. 2,) precedes the 
termination, it is changed into d or # before atai and ato ; thus, 
rrxfiva^co, perfect passive iaasvacjfiai ; 3d person plural Ionic 
iatevadatai ; ntiftm, perfect passive 7Z87il?]G[iai, 3d person plu- 
ral TtSTzXTjd-aTcu for TzsTttyaftevoi siai. 

Obs. 8. In pure verbs, 77 or «e before [iai is usually changed 
into s before the Ionic atai and aro ; thus, TieyiX-rjvtai and -^zo 
are usually changed into myiX-iatai and -s'aro. In like manner, 
a before atai and aro is changed into «, to avoid the duplication 
of the a ; thus, dvanitavtai, from ayaTwraco, becomes avanvzi- 
atai. 

Obs. 9. In like manner, v before the termination to, seldom' 
before tai, in the indicative and optative of the other tenses, but 
never in the subjunctive, is changed into a ; thus, for tvntoivto 
we have tvntoiato ; for vevoivto, vsroiato, <fcc. So also in verbs 
in [ii] as, tu&iataiior n&evtai ; lateatai for htavtai. In these 
forms, a and before v are usually changed into s ; as, ifiovXeato 
for ifiovXovto, <fec. 



273.— §102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN o> and ^«. 

1. A principal difficulty in learning Greek, arises from the va- 
riety of terminations in verbs, according to the different dialects. 
These can hardly be • reduced to any general principles ; but a 
pretty clear idea of them may be formed from the following table. 
It must be observed, however, that many of the same terminations 
occur in all the dialects, although that one only is mentioned in 
which they are most usual. Besides the final syllables, of which 
this table chiefly consists, the Ionians used to insert a vowel be- 
fore the last syllable, which the poets often changed into a diph- 
thong; as, Subj. 2 aor. active or passive tvnw, I. tvm'(o, P. tv- 
neico. So yvy-eiv, I. (pvy-mv ; (to-coai, I. §o-6(oai ; OQ-ag, I. 6q- 
dag. But as this does not affect the inflection of the final sylla- 
ble, it is not noticed in the table. § 98, Obs. 4. 

2. These moods and tenses of the middle and the passive 
voice, which agree in termination with the active, and are not 
iiere specified, are subject to similar changes, in the different dia- 
lects, with those having the same terminations in the active voice. 
The same is true respecting the terminations of verbs in fu ; so 



§ 102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN w AND [M. 145 

that this table is general, applying to the terminations here spe- 
cified, whether they belong to verbs in ou or fu. The dual is 
omitted in the table, as it but seldom occurs. For other changes 
by dialect, see § 101 throughout 

A Table exhibiting the most usual Dialects of tlie terminations 
of Greek Verbs. 

274.— I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

FINITE MOODS. 

SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. -tjfii, M. -efifii; D. -eifu and (if from dm) -afu ; 

. as, ri&efitu for -r^n ; ictT-afti for i6t-rj[u. 
-uv, I. -ea, D. A. -n; as, hwfflM\ for -w. 

-otfxi, A. -oirjv, D. -cpqv ; as, qiX-otr/r for -oijut. 

-<Mu, A. -cpr^v ; as, ti/irifap for -<ppu. 

-o*'^, A. -rt)/^'; as, did-qtijv for did-oiqv ; and so 

on through all the persons. 

2 Pers. -of, D. -f£, ^E. -j^ ; as atuly-eg for -«$. 

-a<;, -iy£, A. -aa&a, -tjo&a\ 88, t'y-r^lht for -//^; o/ft- 

«<T#a, eontr. ohifa, for oJ'da?. 
-«/ s ', ^E. A. -««.? ; as, rvip-eiag for -«/** 

-«;,*> A. I>. -j$ ; 88, qpotr-g? for -«$. 

3 Pers. -« i P™*' ■ D ' ~ £ ' ^ "* ; as ' ****"* for tL 

' ( |»/ttp. A. -tj, I. -ti ; 88, • rfriHjp-// for -«. 

-r«, ^E. A. -«€ ; as, ivip-eis for -at. 

-i/, I. -fl(T/ ; 88, TV7iT-r[Gi for -fl. 

-a, -a, 1 >. -7 n -\i ; as, 6(>-y for -«. 

-ai, D. -rt ; as, rift/jit for -ch. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pei-s. -jttfy, D. -peg ; as, Tvnro-fieg for -//£*• ; tvty-ov- 

fieg or -evfug for -o/if? ; yil-evfieg for 
-ovfi€v ; drjX-ovfteg for -oi'fitr. 
-tjfievt A. -^t€r ; as, Tvqy&ei-fiev for rvq)&ei-Tj^ev. 

2 Pers. -j/ts, A. -re ; as, Ti'Gptto-rs for rvcf&ei-ijte. 

4 Pel's. -<«, D. -rrt ; as, tpd^x-arn for -atrt ; sy-covn 

for -toai ; Xsy-ovri for )Jy-ovai ; reXsvvri 
for -ovot; qpiA-owrt for -oust; ti&-evti 
or -jfVT/ for -««T( ; did-covri for -owre. 



146 DIALECTS OF VERBS IN co AND [U. §102. 

3 Pers. -<Si, B. into y ; as, zsrvy-av for -acn. 

-dai, -vat, -em, I. -earn, -vctoi, -taoi ; as, dec/.v-vaai for 
-i>cr/, ; zid-tfjcoi for -eftft. 

-over*, I. -fitxxt ; -oacri, D. -omti ; as, did-oacu for 

-overt ; cfike-oiai for -ofct. 

-o^, B. -0(7ct^ ; as, eaxdQ-ooav for -o*\ 

-eaav, -year, -oaav, -coaav, P. -£y, -ay, -o^, -cay ; as, lift- 
er for -ecray; ed-ov for -cujay; eyv-atk 

for -C06CIV. 

-siaavi A. I. -sow ; as, eih'jcp-eaav for -eiaav. 

-rjxaoi, -dxacri, M. A. -aw ; as, ze&v-dai for -rjxacrt. 
-«<€?, ^E. A. -stay ; as, zvip-eiav for -«^y. 

1. 2. 3. 3. 3. 

-aTowxcw, -ezcocrav, -elrcoaav, -ozcooav, -ovzcoaav, A. 

into 

1. 2. 3. 

-aVTooi>, -ovzcov, -ovvzcov; as, zvip-dvzcov 

for -dzcoaav ; Ae^-cWcoy for -ezcoaav ; 

Ivn-ovvzcov for -eizcoaav. 

-dov, contr. -coy, ) r\ t ~ » ~ ^* 

/ " , ~ ' >■ JD. 1. -«w ; as, man-ew tor -coy. 
-£oy, contr. -ovv, j ' " 

INFINITIVE. 

-eiv, -evai, I. -^gy, A. D. -epevai, -evv, M. ~ev, -rp ; 

as, ekd-e\ievai for -«y ; dfitXy-ev for -«y ; 

Tift-e/Aev and -e'fievai for -£?#& 
-a/., A. D. -euevai ; as, zvip-e'fievai for -ca. 

-ay, A. D. -dfievai, -fa, ^E. -//y, -^c, -ca? ; as, 

fgv for £««/. (§ 98. 06s. 2.) 
-ovy, A. D. -ojisvai, E. -£w, -coy, jE. -oig, -oh ; 

as, Qiy-cov for -ovy. 

PARTICIPLES. 

-ovcra, D. -oicra, -twa ; as, L,az-evaa for ^z-ovaa. 

-ag, -aaa, -av, D. -c«,£, -a«7«, -aw ; as, Qiip-aig for -a?, 

-qx-cog, ) -via, -6g, A. -cog, -coca, -cog; as, ear-cog for 
-ax-co?, j" -^co£, § 101. V. I. -£coV. 

-co?, M. -coy ; as, zezvcf-cov, G. -or7og, for -co?, 

-ozog. 



g 103. SECOND CONJUGATION. 117 



II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE 
FINITE MOODS. 

SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. -Oficu, f. D. -ovficu; as, rvxp-ovfiat for -ofiai. 

-ovfiaif D. -svfiai ; as, [laft-evftai for -ovfiui. 

-(iv t v, D. -fiav ; as, irvmo-fiav for -\m\v. 

2 Pers. -#, A. -ei, I. indie, -tat, subj. -77a* ; as, fiovket 

for -#, &c. 
hw, I. -£0, D. -£f ; as, (id%-ev for -ov. 

~ea, I. -ao ; as, iXva-ao for -co. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. -f# a, D. -aa&a.', as, txoft-EG&a for -£#a. 

3 Pers. -yrtu, -«HM tlm y I. -azat or -tatai ; as, ndaxcu for xEirtat ; 

tiyv-azai, for -*rai ; Itlt^-utai for -j'/ifc- 

*ot «V, (§101. 12.) 
-rro, -c?ot f/ffay, I. -«to or -aero ; as, 7iev\}ot-aTO for 

-of jto ; tytv-tato for -ofro ; iaidX-ato 

for -^a>ot //day, (§ 101. 12.) 
-rfictv, J&. -ev ; as, dvrt { 0ti-u> for -r t aav\ tTvepft-tv. 

for -/y(7«r. 
-coca*', A. I. D. -toy; as, P.i|«(ji>-co»' for -coo'a*'. 

INFINITIVE. 

jjvai, D. -foiErat, JR. -ijpev ; as, 1e«J)&-7j[iev for 

-jjyra. 

PARTICIPLKS. 

-ovfAEvogj D. AL -evfievog\ as, cpd-EvpEvog for -01/- 



§103. SECOND CONJUGATION. 

275. — Verbs of the second conjugation end in 
pi, and are formed from pure verbs of the first, 
as follows : 

1. & is changed into fit, and the short vowel 



K8 SECOND CONJUGATION. § J 03. 

before it is changed into its own long, or the 
doubtful vowel lengthened ; thus, 

From o [is co is formed Gpijfii I extinguish 

yvoco yvco^ii I know 

cpdco qnjiil I say 

xlvco xXv[ii I hear 

2. Regular verbs in aa, sco, oco, reduplicate the 
initial consonant with c in the present and imper- 
fect; thus, 

From dsoj is formed iti-drjfu I bind 

&sco Ti-&7](ii I place 

doco did co [it I give 

But nlico makes Tiipnlnfu J Jill, 47-19 

3. Verbs beginning with a vowel, prefix i y 
which is called the improper reduplication ; thus, 

From eco is formed i-rjfu I go 
£co i-7jfu I send 

Obs. 1. Also verbs beginning with at or nt prefix i with the 
aspirate; thus, 

From atdco is formed l-ctr^ii 
ntdco i-Titnfii 

4. The reduplication is not used in verbs in v/iu, 
nor in those whose radical primitive has more 
than two syllables ; thus, 

From ylvco comes xXvfu I hear 

iGaco lanut I know 

oveco ov?][ii 1 assert 

Likewise some other verbs ; as, 

apdco cprjfii I say, <fec. (No. 1.) 

Obs. 2. Some verbs which begin with a vowel repeat the first 
syllable, after the manner of the Attic reduplication (224-6); 
thus, alriiii and alalruu ; ayr\\ii and dxdxrjfu. 

Obs. 3. Some pure verbs add vvv to the root before fu, and 
some mute and liquid verbs add vv in order to pass into fu ; as, 
crxsddco R. oxsda cuedd-vm-fii 

deixco dsix deix-w-fu 

«C<» do JfP-NT-MI, dq-vv-iia* 



§ 104, 105. THE TERMINATION. 149 

5. Verbs in pi have only three tenses of that 
form ; viz. the Present, the Imperfect, and the 2 
Aorist The other tenses are taken from the 
primitive in co, and are of the first conjugation, 
296. Verbs in v/ui want the second aorist, and 
also the subjunctive and optative. When those 
moods are needed, they are borrowed from forms 
of the first conjugation in vco. 

Obs. 4. Several verbs form only the 2d aorist according to this 
conjugation, 216, Obs. 1; in such cases, verbs in v<n have the 
2d aorist in vv ; as, 

fiaivm from |3«co Root @a 2d aor. sdyv 

yiyv(6<jx(o yvooa yvo tyvwv 

dv(x> 8v tdvv 

Obs. 5. Many verbs of this conjugation are deponent, having 
only the passive form, while their signification is active ; such are 
dwaftM, I can ; xelficu, I lie ; 8& { uui f I seek ; oto^iat, I think. 



276.— §104. THE ROOT AND AUGMENT. 

1. The Root of verbs in pi has but one form, and is the same 
with the first root of the verb from which it is derived; thus, 
ioTtjfu from ordco, R. otu ; Tiftr^i from fo'w, R. (re, &c. 

2. In Verbs that reduplicate (275—2), the reduplication is pre- 
fixed to the root in the present and imperfect only. 

3. The imperfect and 2d aorist are augmented in the same 
manner as in verbs of the first conjugation. 



2*77. — § 105. THE TERMINATION, OR FINAL LETTERS. 

1. In the first conjugation, the terminations consist of two 
parts, the mood-vowels, and final letters, 225-2. In the second, 
the mood-vowels are wanting, and their place supplied by the 
last letter of the root, which sufficiently distinguishes the moods 
by the changes which it undergoes in combining with the final 
letters. 



150 



FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 



§106. 



2. The Final letters in all verbs belonging to this conjugation, 
are the same. They are divided into two classes, Primary and 
Secondary. The primary belong to the present indicative only ; 
the secondary to the indicative of the imperfect and 2 aorist, and 
to the optative in all the tenses. They are joined immediately 
to the root, and, so far as they can be separated from it, are as 
follows : 

278. — I. ACTIVE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Primary Tenses. 
Sing, -pi -g -oi 

Dual. -tov -zov 

Plur. -pev -re -vzgi 



-[ISV 



Secondaiy Tenses. 

S 

-top 

-T8 



-TtJV 

•uav 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plur. 



Imperative. 

— -&i -rco 

— -70V -T03V 

— -ZS -ZG3G0CV 



Infinitive. 
-vat 
Participles. 
N. -vrg -vzca -v G. -vzog, 



279. — II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Primary Tenses. 
Sing. -pea -Gat -rat 

Dual. -[IS&OV -6&OV -6&OV 

Plur. -pe&a -c&e -vz.cu 



Secondary Tenses. 



-pt]V 
-pe&OV 



-GO 
-G&0V 



-TO 

-no 



Imperative. 

Sing. -go -Gxfco 

Dual. -C&OV -Gxf(OV 

Plur. -G&e -c&aGav 



Infinitive. 
-oftui 
Participles. 
N. -pevog -fieri] -pevov 



§ 106. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES IN THE 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

280. — In the present and imperfect, through 
all the moods, prefix the reduplication, in verbs 
that reduplicate, and then — 



§ 106. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 151 

1. For the Indicative. 

281. — Rule. Change the short vowel of the root 
into its own long (237) in the singular of the 
present and imperfect, and in all the numbers of 
the 2 aorist, and then add the final letters, 277-2 ; 
thus. 



PRESENT. IMPERFECT. L'D AORIST. 

S. icfrrj-fit -g -Gi hrii-v -g — 
D. lata — -tov -xov tara — -jov -t^v 
P. lota-fiev -rt -oi lava-pep -re -aav 

Exc. 1. In the 2 aorist, t&hflu, didatui, and ujiu, have the long 
rowel in the Singular only. 



tGTlJ-V -g — 
tGZtj -TOV -TT\V 

etrrq-fiev -ve -guv 



*©' 



2. For the Suhjutictive. 

282. — Rule. Change the final vowel of the 
root into the subjunctive terminations, co, fig, f t , 
Ac, 229 ; thus, 

ufTtyii, R. <7T«- Subj. Pros. iaz-to, -jjg, -§; -ijrov, -ijrov, &c. 
2 Aor. oz-to, -jjc, -jj ; -Tjov, -?{TOV, <fec. 

06s. These terminations, in the subjunctive, combine with the reg- 
ular subjunctive terminations (2'29) the final vowel of the root, forming 
a sort of mixed vowel or diphthong, and consequently they always 
have the circumflex accent, as here. 

Exc. 2. But verbs in tt>fu retain co through all the persons and 
numbers; as, 

St'dtopu from doto, R. do, Subj. Pres. did-to, -tog, -to ; -tozov, &c. 

2 Aor. d-to, -tpg, -to ; -tozov> &c. 

3. For tlie Optative. • 

283. — Rule. Change the final vowel of the 
root into its own diphthong, and add the second- 
ary final letters with // prefixed ; thus, 

Pres. t<Ttai-ip> -r t g ~t], etc. n&ei-rjv ->,g -/;, ifec. otdoi'-Tjv, &c. 
2 Aor. trzcu-rji -r t g -^, &c. xhi'-qv -t^g -/;, &c. dai-qv, <fec. 



152 



FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 



§107. 



4. For the Imperative. 

284. — Eule. In the present tense, add the final 
letters to the root ; but in the 2 aorist, change the 
short vowel into its own long ; thus, 

Present, ioza-&i, -rco, -rov, -row, -te f -vmaav. 
2 Aorist, artj -#«, -tea, -rov, <fcc. 

Exc. 3. In the 2 aorist, zi&qfu, did a pi, and irjfii, retain the 
short vowel, and add g instead of &1 in the 2d person singular ; as, 
di-g, -zo) ; -tov, -rcov, &c. ; 86-g, -rco ; -zov, -row, &c. So also 
<S7i?j{M, q)Q?j(M, and G%7]{ii t m tne present, have Gnkg, cpQsg, G%eg. 

5. For the Infinitive. 

285. — Kule. In the present tense, add the final 
letters to the root, and in the 2 aorist, change the 
short vowel into its own long ; thus, 

Present, iGza-vcu, 2 aor. Gti]-vau 

Exc. 4. In the 2 aorist, ri&qfu and itjfii change the short 
vowel of the root into ei, and didcopi changes it into ov ; as, 
&£i-v(u si-vat ogv-vcu 

6. For the Participles. 

286. — Rule. Add the final letters .to the root, 
and then combine by the rules of euphony^ § 6, 
18 : thus. 



lava-vrg, -vroa, 

xdts-vzg, -vT6a, 

didovrg, -vraa, 

deixvv-vrg, -vtoa, 



-v, combined iGT-ag, 

-V, 7ld--£ig, 



-uoa, -av. 

-tiaa, -kv. 

did-ovg, -oi>Ga 7 -6v. 

8eixv-vg t -vgoc, -vv. 



§107. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES IN THE 
MIDDLE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

287. — Prefix the reduplication in the present 
and imperfect in verbs that reduplicate (275-2), as 
in the active voice ; and then, in all the tenses, — 



§ 107. FORMATION" OF MOODS AND TENSES. 153 

1. For the Indicative, Imperative, Infinitive, and 
Participles. 

288. — Rule. Annex the final letters (279) to 

the root ; as, 

Indicative, iGza-pai, -cat, -rat, &c. Imp. fara-pip; -go, -to, <tc. 

Imperative, Igzu.-go, -o~\t(o, -c&ov, -g&cqv, &e. 

Infinitive, ?Gza-oftui. 

Participles, lard fitvog, -fitTy, -psvov. 

2. For the Subjunctive. 

289. — Rule. Change the last letter of the root 
into the subjunctive terminations, dj/uai, f h ijrai, 
<fcc, 230, and 282, Obs. ; as, 

ust/][h, R. Gta- Subj. Pres. lar-w^ua, -§, -tjai, <fcc. - 

2 Aor. oz-(iJ t u(u, -£, -tjui, &c. 

Exc. Verbs in mpi retain w through all the numbers and per- 
sons, as in the active voice, 282, Exc 2 ; as, 

ftidcoui, R, 9o- Subj. Pres, dtS-oniai, -o), -corxa, <fcc. 

2 Aor. o-fo/<<«, -oj, -dJiut, tfce. 

3. For the Optative. 

290. — Rule. Change the last letter of the root 
iuto its own diphthong, and add the secondary 
final letters ; as, 

ujnjfu, R. aza- Opt. Pres. uTtou-ftJjv, -go, -to, &c. 

2 Aor. ozui-(ja t v, -go, -to, &c. 

Obs. 2 is usually rejected in the 2d person singular ; mak- 
ing— 

iGTui-(i?jv, -o, -vo, &c. GTai-nqv, -o, -to, &c, 295-8. 

291. — N. B. As the root of verbs in jxi ell^in a, e, o, or v, 
these vowels, combining with the final letters, cause the apj>ear- 
ance of four different forms of termination, and for this reason 
four paradigms have usually been given, though there is in fact 
only one. The following tables will show, that, in whatever vowel 
the root ends, still there is but one form of inflection. 



154 



PAKADIGM OF VERBS l¥ ui. 



§108. 



Singular. 
hrri \ 

Seixvv J 



108. PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ML* 
292. — ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative Mood, 281. 

Dual. Plural. 

) 



iGza 
rids 

8180 C 
Uvv J 



lot } 



igzui 
zi&ei 



-co -rig -y 
-co -cog -co 



■t]v -yg -n 



hza -&i s ) 
itds -zi 4 f (. -1 
dido -fa 4 
8tixvv-&i 



rov -top 
Seixvv 
Subjunctive, 282. 

-rftOV -7JTOV 

-cozov -cozov 
Optative, 283. 

-qzov -{\zr\v 

Imperative, 284. 
-zov 



-fllV -ZS 

(-VZG1 1 ) 



IGZUGl 
Zl&StGl 
8l'8oVGl 

SeixvvGi 



-COflSV -1(1$, -cogi 
-COfJlEV -COZE -COGI 



■7]fiEv z -t}zs -yaciv 



Infinitive, 285. 




-VCU 



V 




-re -zcogup 8 


p 

IGZ- 
Zl&- 

8id- 
detx 


articipl 

dg 

eig 

ovg 

v-vg 


es, 286. 
-acju -ctv 

-tlGCt -iv 

-ovg a -ov 

-VGOL -W 



IMPERFECT TENSE, 294-6 (2). 

Indicative, 281. 

IGZf] 

izid-r] 
ibioco 
idslxvv 

The other moods in the imperfect are wanting. 

Note. The numbers 1, 2, 3, <fcc, refer to the same numbers in § 109 



**d 



iGza 
izids 
idido 
idsixw 



-rov -vqv 



-{18V -in -golv 1 



* For the accents, see 254-2. 



\ 48, Obs. 5 



§108. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ^u 



155 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ML 
ACTIVE VOICE. 
SECOND AORIST. 



Singular. 

e&q >-r -g — 
ttito ) 



CT ) 



-w -rjg -y 
6 -do -cog -co 



Indicative Mood, 281. 



Dual. 

earn 

e&e J- -jov -Ttjv 

edo 

Subjunctive, 282. 

-rjrov -Tfzov 
-miov -cozor 



Plural. 

fAEV -78 -GCtV 7 



(OfUV ijTS -0)61 
diutv -curs -COGl 







Optative, 283. 




oral ) 








#a' [ -nv -vg -y 
dot ) 




-TfZOV -l(tlp 


-ijfiM "fjTi -qouv 




Imperative, 284. 


<>t -g > 4w 
86 -g ) 




-rov -row 


-ra -rmoctv 


Infinitive, 285. 


Participles, 28G. 


del [■ 
dov ) 


■vcu 




6Tug 
&ti'g 
dovg 


azuaa crav 
&eiaa &t.v 
dovoa dov 



Note 1. The numbers. 1^ 2. 3. (fee, refer to the same numbers in 

§109. ~^ 

Note 2. For the accents in these tables, as iD the tables of the first 
conjugation, see 254-2. 



156 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN p. 



§103. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ML 

293. — MIDDLE VOICE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative Mood, 288. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



lata ) 

$EMVV J 



flS&OV -6&OV -G&OV 

Subjunctive, 289. 



-fz£&a -G&e -vtai 



lot ) ~ ~ ~ 
„ [• -wucu -n -ijtai 

did -a>[A(u -<$ -wrai 



-miis&ov -tjg&ov, &c. 

-cofie&ov -coc&ov, <fec. 

Optative, 290. 



-cope&a -jjo&s -avrat 
-cofis^a -ojg&8 -avrcu 



iGtai 

ti&si J- -\inv -o ((Jo 8 ) -to 

didoi 



iota \ 

J,* > -go 9 -a-d-to 

deixw J 

Infinitive, 288. 



flS&OV -g&ov -G&qv 
Imperative, 288. 

-G&OV G&OJV 



-fie&a -G&S -VVQ 



-G&8 -G&G)GUV 



IGtCL 
Zl&E 



-ad-ai 



dsixvv 



zi&i 
dido 
deixvv 



Participles, 288. 

-[xevog -fievrj -}ievov 



iGta j 
idewvv ) 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Indicative, 288. 

-[1£&0V -G&OV -G&ljV 



-pada -g&s -no 



The other moods of the imperfect are wanting. 

Note, The numbers 8, 9, refer to the same numbers in § 109. 



\ 



§108. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN [U. 



157 



PAEADIGM OF VERBS IN ML 
MIDDLE VOICE. 
SECOND AORIST. 

Indicative Mood, 288. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 

■fied'a -G&e -no 



E&e > -vunv -co -ro 
i8o 



-fie&ov -G&OV -G&tjV 
Subjunctive, 289. 



at ) 



ojfiai -n -tfzcu 



■ebue&ov -ijG&ov, tfec. 



8 -<o[iai -o} -at cu -cofie&ov -mG&ov, <fcc. 
Optative, 290. 



-co (xs&a -iJG&e -wvtai 
-<6[i£&a -ooG&e -oSvtai 



Gtai 
8oi 


' -(irp>-o(Go 9 )-to 


-[18&OV -G&OV -G&ljV 


-[le&a -g&8 -vto 




Imperative, 288. 


Gtd ) 

#8 [ 

86 ) 


-GO 9 -G&OO 


-G&OV -G&OW 


-G&8 -G&03GK.V 




Infinitive, 288. 


Participles, 288. 




Gtd ) 

&i [-G&ou 

86 ) 




Gtd ) 

&8 U 

86 ) 


&vog -fiivn -fievov 



The present and imperfect passive are like the present 
and imperfect middle. The second aorist passive is want- 
ing. 

Note. For the other tensea of verbs in /u, see §§ 110, 111, and for 
the dialects, § 102. 

8 



I 

158 OBSERVATIONS OX VERBS IN }U. §109. 

§109. OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN fu. 
294. — ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. The final letters of the 3d person plural are properly vtgi ; 
and these, combining with the preceding vowel according to the 
rules of euphony (4*7-18), become am, siai, ovai, vat, com. 

2. In the optative, t] is often dropped before the final letters 
of the plural, making — 

-ai\i8v, -aits, -ai,8v ; -sifiev, -site, -eizv ; -otfiev, -oizs, -oi8v ; 
instead of — 

-aitjfisv, -aiqzs, -aitjaav ; -8irj{i8v, &c. 

8. forqfu has sometimes lazy for iGta&i in the imperative ; 
and in compounds, oza is commonly used for arij&i ; thus, avu- 
aza for dvaar^di ; TTagdata for nuqaatifii, &c. 

4. So also zifrq/u, didcofit, and (qui, have sometimes ti&et, 
didov, isi, for zi&szi, dido&i, is&i ; but these are property con- 
tracted forms of the primitive verb with the reduplication, used 
in the Ionic and Doric dialects ; thus, z/ihoj, imperative zi'O'ti, 
contracted zi&8i. 

5. As in verbs in to (261), so also in those in fit, t'vzav is used 
for hoaav in the imperative 3d person plural. 

6. The primitive in co, with the reduplication, is sometimes 
used instead of the form in fit in the present and imperfect ; thus, 

(1.) Present. 

Ti#£o3, -mg, -m, contr. -co, -8ig, -8i, for zifrqui., -qg, -rjat, &c. 
lazdco, -a8ig, -ast, " -o5, -ag, -a, " iGzijfji, -qg, -r t at, &c. 

through all the moods. 

(2.) Imperfect. 

izi&sov, -88g, -88, contr. -ovv, -8ig, -8i, for izi&t]v, -ijg, -tj, <fcc. 

7. The terminations -aaav, -8aav, &c, in the 3d person plu- 
ral, are frequently shortened by syncope ; as, *gzuv for hzaoar ; 
&ri&8v for szideaav ; 'ifiav for s^ijaavi 

295. — MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

8. In the 2d person singular of the imperfect indicative, mid- 
dle, and passive, a is often rejected, and the concurring vowels 
contracted ; thus, tazco for lazaao ; zi&ov for zi'&eao, etc. So in 
the present indicative, sometimes iczy for lazaaai. Also in the 



§ 110. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 159 

2d person singular of the optative, g is rejected, but the vowels, 
being incapable of contraction, remain unchanged. 

9. The same contraction takes place in the imperative ; but 
in the 2d aorist &sgo is contracted into &ov only in compounds ; 
as, 7iaQd&ov, imo&ov, &c. 



§ 110. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 

296. — Verbs in fit have only three tenses of that form; viz. 
the present, imperfect, and 2d aorist. . All the other tenses are 
formed from the first root of the primitive, as in the first conjuga- 
tion (232-2), and are inflected as the same tenses in verbs in o> ; 
as, 

Ti'fttftu, from &im t has fut. \tijGco, ft/jGOfiai, &c. 

Sidoofii, from dno), has fut. 8c6gcq, dcoGOfiar, &c. 

taitj^it, from ardco, has fur. gz/jgco, 1 aor. tozrjGa, &c. 

297. — EXCEPTIONS. 

1. Future. Some verbs occasionally retain the reduplication; 
as,' did(oa<a from didcoui ; and verbs from derivatives in vvco and 
irvco form the future from their primitives; thus, Sti'xvvfu from 
ou/.vvod, has the future ftu'ico from dti'xco.. 

2. First Aorist. TtdrjfU, oidcoui, and f/;/«, have y.a and xd[iqv 
instead of gu and Gaptp in the 1st aorist indicative; as, 1 aor. 
eftqua, i&nxafitp ; i'dw/.u, idwAduyv, &c. In these verbs, the 
other moods of this tense are wanting. 

3. Perfect and Pluperfect Active. Verbs in \ii from /a> com- 
monly have si before y.a of the perfect ; those from dco have ?] or 
a ; as, zidtjut from Ot'co, perf. itlhr/.a ; Igtijul from Gtdco, perf. 
$Gwptct, or tGiuxa. In th . ustvfu aspirates the augment, 
and, except in the singular of the indicative, has a syncopated 
form which resembles the present ; thus, first person plural tGzf r 
yjiiitr, by syncope, Sotapsv, (tc. infinitive iarrptsveu, by syncope 
bGzuiui\ participle, as 207. 

Obs. The perfect active of unrmi has a present signification; 
thus, EGttjxa, I stand, pluperfect eariptew, I stood. In the pre- 
sent, imperfect, future, 1 aorist, active, it signifies to place, to 
cause to stand. In the passive throughout, to be placed. The 2 
aorist, middle is not in use. 

4. Passive voice. The short vowel of the root remains short 
before a consonant in the passive voice; as, didcopi, future passive 



160 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. §111,112. 

do'&/](TOfAat f 1 aorist 186-&1JV, perfect otoo-ficu, &c. But « before 
xa in the perfect active returns before fiai in the perfect passive ; 
as, perfect active tstfei-xct, future passive t£-&/jgoiicu (43-4), per- 
fect passive Tsdst-fiai. 

5. Tenses wanting. Verbs in \ii want the second and third 
roots, and consequently the tenses derived from them ; viz. the 
second future passive, the 2d perfect and 2d pluperfect active, 
and the 2d aorist passive. 



298. — §111. TABLE EXHIBITING ALL THE TENSES OF 
VERBS IN ML 



Present. 
Imperf. 
Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
Fut. perf. 


ACTIVE. 

iGttffti 

iGTqv 

gh'jocq 

BGfUGOL 

SGTqv 

tcraxcc or -nxa 

iczdxeiv or elatdxsiv 


MIDDLE. 

icrafiai 
iatdfiqv 
arfjaofieu 
iarrjodfirjv 

ifftd^V 


PASSIVE. 

iGTafiai 
iotdfiqv 

iatddqv 

B(jtafiai t 
SGrdfinv 

ioTl'j$0[lCU 







m'fifzlqfii, from Tihw I fill 

hence nXrftco 



299. — Verbs in MI to be conjugated 

ivfju, from em I send 

2 f- G&sw I extinguish 

^Evyvvfii ^evyco, I join 

didiflM ds'cQ I bind 

mr^fii Ttrdco I fiy 

owjim ovsoj I help 

")\lvv\ii 6[i6(o I swear 



ollvfii 
vixtj/u 

xkv\it 
Qcovvvfu 



oXeco I destroy 
nxdco, I conquer 
cpdco I say 
xXvco I hear 
qoo3 /strengthen 



§112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS IN ML 
300. — The irregular and defective verbs in fit are usually 




Hie 
are as 



follows : 



§112. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



1(31 







301.— 


I. Ei/ui, I am. 








ACTIVE VOICE. 








PRESENT TENSE. 








Indicative. 




S. eifu 

D. 

P. iofitp 




eig or ei 
iozov 


iori 

iorop 

slot 


S. w 
D. 

P. (OflSP 




Subjunctive. 

h 

7JI0V 


V 

tjtOP 
03(11 


S. efqv 

D. 

P. efyfiev 




Optative. 
wpop 


etqoav 


Imperative. 

S. €00 tOTOJ 
D. tOTOV 80TCOV 

P. aire toxcaoav 


Infinitive. 
thai 


Participles. 
M. ojp 
F. ovoa 
F. op 






IMPERFECT TEN6E. 




S. /> 

D. 

P. Jjfiey 




Indicative. 
r)g 

7jtOV 

fas 
MIDDLE VOICE. 
IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 


// or rjv 

IjTtjV 

l\oav 


1). fjfJLS&OV 

P. >;/«l£#6t 




• 


r t oo 

J t o&op 

yo&e 


yto 
t)o&qv 

7JPTO 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Indie, eoofiat, Opt. iooifirjv, Inf. taea&M, Tart, ioofievog, regular. 



162 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



§112 



302.— THE CHIEF DIALECTS OF dfd. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT. 



1. 

Sing, fljul, D. ififzl, 

Pkir. iofiiv, dpiq, 

P. ifxh, djjiiv. 



Sing a), I. I'm, P. not. 

Plur. Jt/AiVy D. mfiiq, 

P. iXoifitv, hiopbiv. 



Sing u?jv, I. Eoifju,. 
Plur. ttyfxtv, I, £t/t£i\ 



Sing 
Plur. 



Indicative. 
2. 
£«,"> or ft, L eft?, P. e*t, 

iari, P ire. 



Subjunctive. 
$S, I. erfi, P. ftij?. 



5 



Optative. 

ntjq, I. eow;. 
firjri, I. ftrf . 

Imperative. 

6 (TO, P. IWo, A. l'<Xih. 

ecti. 



Infinitive. 



taxi, T>. ivri, ivl. 

dq't, D. ivri, M. IVrt, 
ivvrt,, P. tacrt, eacFCfb. 



* T V v ' w 

^, 1. £?], mj, //fft, e;;<r»j 
_ P. iirjGi,. 
o)0~t>, I. eo)0~t>. 



I »' T >» 

arj, 1. eot. 
ihjaav, L A. ftfv. 



IGTMGCtV, A. tffrwr, 
P. iovruiv. 



n,vav t I. c^fv, ft^fv, D. tfifvav, tj^uv, rjpiq, eifiiq, M. epftivcu, P. epjufv. 



M. wv, I. eojv, JE. 6t^. 



Participle. 

] Fern. ojVrt, I. eorcra, D.| Neut. ov, I. idv, JE. 
f wa, so i(7a, eaffffa, tr. 
-all. £t<ra, taaa. 



Smg ^r, I. £«, ^a, P. |^v, 
ffyv, t/^v, £ov, r]of, 

SGXOV. 

Du. 

Plur. ^/tfv, D. TJftiq, P. £7*fi>. 



IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

tjq, I. hq, ettq, P. j£fc, 
fi'ac, tffxfc, ^E. /V- 
fla, etjcrda. 

fjTOV, M l(JTOV, P. 

_ irov, ^arov. 

WTf, I. £0CT£. 



>/. or ^r, I D. ijt, I 



P. gffK*. 



7/7V/I', A. t;<TT?jV, P. 

EGTt;v. 
tjaav, P. fear, eVaav, 

ECzor. 



§112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 103 

MIDDLE VOICE. 
imperfect: 

Indicative. 

Plar } Ivxo, I. faro, num. 

FUTURE. 

Indicative. 

Sing. fVo/rat, D. iaov^ai, tar\, A eait, I. tatai, jtcrfTcu., by syncope 
tatT'ncu, P. itTfrouat.. inmcu, D. t<xf, eer- ttTTou, D. M>trat, 

I (TTj, P. fcWrj. i(T(THTCtv, P. l<f(TtTU!>. 

Plur. ta6u(f)a,A!Lt!T6nHTfra. ea;<jfrf. ' tao it« t, D. feourra* 

Infin. totaQcu, P. tooia&ai,. Particip. tff6,«;roq, P. fWo^roc. 

303.— II. E//^, 7 #<9. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Dual. Plurai. 

Indie, dfu tig or el ehi trov irov \u» at i'ai or laat 

Subj. no vng u] i'^zov "r t Tov ho/up uje Icoai 

Opt. ioifM totg ioi To/roj' iWri^f toi/xiy loae tot» 

Imper. i\h aco 'a or acov ae aajoap 

Infin. itrai Part icor lovoa tor, Cren.f'oiTO^ iovayg, (fee. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

Sinn;, {few or §a mag or Jf/ntf-a Jet 

J Mial. ffiizov or Jror rjtdtjv or Jryy 

Plur. ?j£^£^ or flfitp ytae or t/re ijeaav, Ion. ^ira* 

Middle Voice.— "hjucu, to hasten. 

Indicative. 
Present. f-ef*au -eaai -erai -eneftov, <tc. 

Imperf. i-dfup -eoo -ezo -tpe&ov, <fec. 

Obs. 1. Tlie Attics, and sometimes the Ionians, use the present 
of tint, in the indicative, infinitive, and participles, in a future 
sense, " / will go" , 

Obs. 2. The ancient grammarians have another form of the 
imperfect ; viz. eIv, tig, « — trov, tttjv — i(iw, ae, ioav ; — and of 
the second aorist, fov, "eg, te, &c. ; but, except the third persons 
it, iitjr, and laav, peculiar to epic writers, no such forms are 
fouud. 



164 irkec^lIjLand defective verbs. § 112. 
304. — III. c 'Irj/ui, to -send, from C 'EI2. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Indie. irjiM irjg iijoi letov letov le\iev lets, iaai, or kuit 

Subj. tea l^g ly lijtov Itjtov impev iijte imoi 

Opt. ieiqv iefyg, &c. 

Imper. lei (le&i) let on letov let em lete leteoaav 

Infin. Uvea Participles, ielg teiacc lev Gen. levtog, &c. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie, leov leeg lee) » * > « « <? 

n . « 9 9 \ letov letriv leuev tete leaav 
Oontr. low isig tei J ■ ' * r 

FUTURE. 

Indie, ija-oo -eig -ei -ezov, &c 

1 AORIST. 

Indie. i\x-a -ag -e -azov, &c. 

2 AORIST. 

Indie. i\xa rjxag ^xe ehov eltijv eipev eite efactv 

Subj. c5 rjg ?J, &c. 

Opt. elrjv elqg el?] eltov eitqv eiy.ev site elev 

Imper. eg eta) etov etav ete eteoaav 

Infin. elvai Participles, eig elect, ev Gen. evtog, &c. 
Perf. eh-ct -ag, &c. Pluperf. elx-eiv -eig, &c. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Indie, lefiai teaai letai le'fie&ov, &c. 

Subj. icofiai tg lijtcti icofie&ov, &c. 

Opt. loifitjv, &c. Imper. leao or lov. Infin. leo&ca. Part, ts'iuvog, &c. 

Indicative. 
Imperf. iefiijv leco, &c. Fut. ?j(jotiat, &c. 1 Aor. ^xd^v, &o. 

2 AORIST. 

Jndic. eifAijv eiao ejto elfie&ov eia&ov et<j&rjv etfie&a, &c. 

Subj. muai y ijtai, &c. 

Opt. oifiqv olo oltOy &c. rarely eifiqv eio, &c. 

Imper. ov eg&co, &c. Infin. ea&ai. Part, efievog -tj -ov 

Perf. Indie, eijica eiaai, &c. Infin. eia&ai 
Pluperf. Indie, eifiijv efco, &c. 



§112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 165 

PASSIVE VOICE. jL 
Future. Indie. i&ijGOfiai. 1 Aor. Indie. JKh- Part, i&u'g. 

305. — IV. Eljucci, I clothe myself. 

This verb comes from ho, to go into, to be sent, or, put into. — 
Middle, to put one's self into, to clothe one's self ; and it is the 
same in the present middle, and present and perfect passive ; thus, 

PRES. MID., AND PRES. AND PERF. PASS. 

Indie. S. el-fiai, -cat, -zai and -gzou. — 3d PI. ehzca. Part, eifievog. 

FIRST AORIST. 

Indie, eiG (sgg, isus) -dfir^j -cu, -azro, &c. Part, sGGdfievog. 

PLUPERFECT. 

Tndic. €L[XTjv y eho and tGGo, elzo, teazo, efazo, and igzo. 3d PI. eirzo. 

306. — V. ElocCf did set, did place. 

F.'igol (from «o, to put), a defective trans, verb, to lay afoun* 
dation ; to erect (a building), has the following forms, viz. : 
Act. 1 aor. uGa> &c. Mid. diodjtrp, etc. 

The diphthong el is properly the augmented root e, which, 
however, is retained in all the moods. The future tiaoficu is sel- 
dom used. The defective parts are supplied from idgvm. 

307.— VI. r Hftcu f I sit. 

r H(iat is properly a perf. passive, with a present intrans. signi- 
fication, from the same ko, to put, to place, or to set ; thus, Perf. 
I have been placed or set, and remain so ; i. e. / sit. It wants the 
subjunctive and optative except in the compound xd&qpai, which 
has xd&oaiAui, xa&oipqv, &c. and is more common than r t fjuu. 

PRESENT. 

Indie ffuu -cat. -zai \-(i€&ov -g&ov -g&ov \-[ie&a -c&e -rzcu 

Imper. n — -co -aft<o\ -g&ov -o&covl — -a&s -Gdcoaa* 

Inf. ■qaQ'ca Part, ijixuog -// -ov 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie. q-f*9p> -co -to \-[i£&or -a&ov -g&ijv \-fieOa -gOs -no 

Obs. 3. For ipzai the Ionians use tazai, and the Poets eiazai ; 
and for Jjvzo in like manner tazo and eiazo. So also for xd&^vzai 
and xdfhwzo the Ionic forms are xazsazai and xarmro, 272. 

8* 



166 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



§112 



308.— VII. Ktlfiai, Hie down. 

This verb may be regularly derived from xeeco, for too by pros- 
thesis of xe; xeeco becomes xEyya in the 2 conjugation, and in the 
middle, xesfiou, by contraction, xeifiai. It has the Ionic forms, 
xecctcu and ixs'azo for xeivzcu and exeirro, 272. 



Singular. 
Indie, xsi-ficu -aca -rai 
Imp. xel — -go -o&(o 
Inf. xsiG&ai 
Part, xeifisvog -y 



PRESENT. 

Dual. 

■flE&OV -O&OV -G&OV 
-G&OV -6&0JV 



Pltiral. 
-fie&a -g&e -vrai 

-G&E -G&toGVf 



■ov 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie. ixEi-fiyv -go -to \-{ie&ov -g&ov -G&yv\-{iE&a -g&s -vto 

FUTURE. 

Indie. xeiG-ofiai -y -szcu, <fec. regular. 

309.— VIII. <£> ni A' h I say. 

<Pypi, except cpyg, in the 2d person singular of the present in- 
dicative active, is like igtj][U. It appears to have had an ancient 
form tjfii, whence, probably, we have the forms of the imperfect, 
r t v, yg, y, frequently used in familiar language with 6" iyco and 
d J og; as, yv o" iya, "said I ;" y 6" og, "said he." The infini- 
tive ydvcu is always used in the sense of the past time ; as, (fdvat 
xov ^axQCLTy, " that Socrates has said" When the present in- 
finitive is required, it is supplied by Xeysiv. 

310.— IX. Oida, I Mow. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Singular. Dual. 



Ind. olda oJg&cl* oJoe (v) 

Subj.£t<5a5 eidrjg eldrj, &c. 

Opt. eldsiyv sldsiyg eldsiy, &c. 

Imp. iG'd'l 'totco 



Inf. EiOEvai 



IGTOV tGZOV 



IGZOV (GTCOV 



Plural. 

lGfl8V IGTE IGO.GI 



(GTE iGTCOGCiV 



Part. Eidcog -via -og 



* OWag, with the paragogic fra, o«W#a, by syncope o?<r&a. Old 
Attic form olaQaq. 



§113. DEPONENT VEKBS. lrJ7 

IMPERFECT. 

Sing. Idciv ffikig {fanatic'., Att. fidrjG&a) ffiti, Att. jjflif 

Dual. fjdmop ^dtdrijv 

Plur. < i " (■ -J&ere (or jjczf) vSeigclv (or -rca*) 

f! gapey J 

Future eiiGOftcu, more rarely tid/ t Gca, I shall know, experience. 

Verbal adj. neuter iGziov. 

The aorists and perfect are supplied from yiyveoaxca. 

Obs. 4. OlSu is strictly a 2d perfect from Sf&oo, I see ; perfect 
/ Aaye se«i, or perceived, i. e. / A'/tow. In this sense it is used as 
a present only, and its pluperfect as an imperfect, as above. For 
tGfieP, the Ionia ns have 'idutr ; and for tibt'rui, the Epic writers 
have idfitvai, and tdftev. 

Matthias and the older grammariam derive the above forms, begin- 
ning with t, by Byncope from an assumed verb Unjfti, of which in the 
Dorio dialect the forms laam, tfftjq t Kraft, and the part. iaaq 3 are ex- 
tant. On the other hand, Buttmann, Kiihner, and others, think these 
forma all belong to otdfat, or eftta — that tatur, aeoording to the ordinary 
•i of derivation, is formed from the Ionic to/fty (§ 6, 11), which 
manifestly belongs to »«Jw, and not to taiffu] while tarov, tori, are, by 
8 similar analogy, from i'dror, u)rf, from the same, by dropping the 
vowel ; and that the imperative termination, 0*, is substituted 
for the ordinary termination, a^ is usunliy done when the mood-vowel 
i- omitted, ae in xixoa^d*, un»/fn, dec, Thia ia probably the true ori- 
gin of these forma. (See Buttmann'a Gr. §109, 111.) It ia certain, how 
that, so far as nsage ia concerned, the above mixed paradigm of 
olda is the only correct 

For a catalogue of irregular and defective verbs, see §117. 



311.— g 113. DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Deponent verbs are those which under a 
middle or passive form have either an active or a 
middle signification. 

2. The perfect of deponent verbs has sometimes also a passive 

3. Some of these verbs have also a passive form of the first 
future and first aorist, always used in a passive sense 

4. The Tenses of deponent verbs are: the present, imperfect, 
perfect, pluperfect, and paulo-post-future of the passive form; 
the future and first aorist of the middle form; and the ftrst fu- 



168 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



§ 114, 115. 



ture and first aorist in the passive form, and with a passive 
sense. A few have a second aorist middle. They are usually 
conjugated by giving the present, future middle, and perfect pas- 
sive; thus, dkjo[A,ai, ds^opai, dtdeypai. 





312. SYNOPSIS OF 


DEPONENT VERBS. 






Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Optative. 


Imper. 


Infin. 


Part. | 


Pres. 


dex-Oficiv 


d£/-b)/A,ai> 


-ol/irjv 


-ov 


-ta&cu 


-OfllVOq* 


Imp. 


idtX-6/iijv 












Perf. 


dediy-ficu 


dedty-fiivoq w 


-fiivoq utjv 


-GO 


-a&av 


-fiivoq 


Plup. 


edfdiy-fiijv 












Flit. M. 


d££-Oficti> 


wanting 


-OlfJLTJV 


wanting 


-ta&at. 


-o/iivoq 


] Aor. M. 


ISt^-dfirjv 


d££-o)[iab 


-alfiyv 


-at 


-aa&ou 


-a fitvoq 


1 Fut. P. 


diX&r}G~0[jiou 


wanting 


-OlfllJV 


wanting 


-ta&ai 


-Ofitvoq 


1 Aor. P. 


8ix&-o) 


-uvv 


-lyrt 


-tjvav 


-nq 


P. P. Fut. 


dede$-Ofiat> 


wanting 


-OlflTJV 


wanting 


-ta&ai 


-0 fiivoq 



Note. In this table, the imperative and infinitive of the perfect 
dk§iy-oo and didiy-o&ai, are changed by euphony into didi Jo and Sidix- 
&av, § 6. 1. 17. 



§114. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

313. — Many verbs are occasionally taken impersonally; as, 

KQ8Gxei, it pleases ; agxeT, it suffices ; GvpcptQEi, it is profitable, <fec. 

The following are those which are chiefly taken impersonally : 

1. Tioinei, it is becoming-; 87TQ87ze, it was becoming ; ttqmeiv, 
to be becoming ; to nqmov, that which is becoming ; pi. ta nqi- 
novta. 

2. [lelsi, it concerns ; faXs, fieXtjGsi, [iSfis'Xvus and fiefiyXe. 

3. SoxsT, it appears; idoxei (from doxem); tdo£s (from 
doxco) ; ta doyovvta. 

4. dsi, it behoves ; tdei, 8eij6et, 8eiv y to Seov, ra dsovra. 

5. XQ*l> M *• necessary ; ixQtjv, XQ'fa 1 * XQH vai > an( i XQWi ™ 
XQs'av, contracted for XQsaov. Subj. XQV- 



314.— §H5. DESIDERATIVE, FREQUENTATIVE, AND 
INCEPTIVE VERBS. 

1. Desiderative Verbs are those which denote a desire o» 
intention of doing. They are commonly formed bv adding cua 
to the first root of the primitive ; as. 



§ 116. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 169 

yeXdw, I laugh; 1 R. ^k- ysXaaeico, I desire to laugh. 
noXefiew, I make war ; " 7ZoXefi€- 7io)^naeico, I desire war. 

Another form of desideratives is that in dm or idm, properly from 
substantives; as, from ftdvarog, death ; &avazdm, I long for 
death ; azqatiyyog, a general ; ozgatnyidm, I wish to be a general. 
Also from verbs, by first forming substantives from them ; as, 

mveio&at, to bug ; ((ovvti'js,) mrnztdm, I wish to bug. 
xXaim, I weep ; (xXavaig,) xXavaidm, I am disposed to weep. 

2. Frequentatives are those which signify repeated action. 
These commonly end in £oj ; as, Qinrd^eiv (from Qinieiv), to 
throw from one place to another, Mid. to throw one's self this way 
and that, to be restless ; GTtvd^uv (from arevHf), to sigh much 
and deeply ; so, from airta; to demand ; alri^uv, to beg ; 
tQ7iEiv, to creep ; sonv^tiv, to creep slowly. 

3. Inceptives are those which express the beginning or con- 
tinued increase of an action. These commonly end in axm ; as, 
yti tiuaxm, to begin to have a beard ; r^daxm, to grow to man- 
hood (the same as ytvttd^m and t^am) ; in part transitive ; as, 
(u&vaxm, to intoxicate ; from pt&vm, I am intoxicated. 



§110. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

315. — In many of the Greek verbs, a variety of forms appeaYs, and 
also an apparent irregularity in the formation of different tenses. This 
is occasioned partly by the adoption of new forms of the present and 
imperfect tenses, which are used either jointly with their primitives, 
if they are still in use ; or in their stead, if they have become obsolete, 
while the other tenses continue as regularly formed from the primitive 
verb; and partly by the use of tenses taken from synonymous verbs ot 
a dilferent theme, in the place of those which have become nearly or 
entirely obsolete ; and thus, as it were, out of the fragments of two or 
more verbs, whose other parts have disappeared, is formed a new whole. 
The parts of this whole, being all that remain in use of their respec- 
tive roots, considered by themselves are really defective verbs. And 
some of ihese, though regularly formed from their own themes, yet not 
being formed from the present to which they are attached, but from 
some other verb related to it in form or signification, the whole verb is 
not improperly termed anomalous or irregular. This appellation, then, 
properly belongs to all those verbs whose present, future, and perfect, 
do not follow the common analogy of conjugation. A few examples 
will illustrate these remarks ; thus, ditto, to go under, has dim*, 8vph 
and oY'ffxrt), all different forms of the present ; but the tenses of the first 
root are regularly formed from the primitive dim, and the second aorist 

8 



170 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



116. 



Mvv, from the form in pi. Again, nav/w, I suffer, has the future noc- 
firjao), and perfect Tct/id&i'iy.a., from the obsolete present, naOiv); the 
2d aorist tjzafrov, 2 perfect 7it7trj0a, from the obsolete Tti-'j&o); and the 
future middle ndaopcu (§6. 18), and 2 perfect active ninov&a, from 
the obsolete nhdo). In this latter example, Trciff/w, the only present 
in use, with its imperfect bnaa/ov, is a defective verb, having no other 
tenses from that root ; in like manner, the other parts from their re- 
spective themes are so many defective verbs : but, taken together, ami 
as attached to Tracr/co, a theme from which they are not formed, accord- 
ing to the common analogy of conjugation, they form what is called 
an anomalous or irregular verb. 

In most irregular verbs, the irregularity is caused by the adop- 
tion of a new present and imperfect, formed by certain changes 
©n the root of the verb in these tenses, while the other tenses con- 
tinue to be formed regularly from the primitive root or theme. 
Thus from AH'BQ* is formed the new present Xafifidvm, im- 
perfect iXdpftavov, while the future LJujco, and all the tenses 
following it, are formed regularly from the root AHB. 

316. — In this way new presents are formed from old roots as 
follows : 

I. By the addition of certain letters to the root ; thus, 



makes 



Tlieme. 


Root. 


let. ad 


1 obxm 


oox 


s 


2 rim 


Tl 


V 


3 dym 


ay 


vv 


4 £00 


8 


vvv 


5 iXdm 


iXa 


vv 


6 EQm 


e.QS 


81V 


1 yr^dm 


yriQCt 


ax 



V^ew Pres. 


Ful. 


doxt-m 


ootm 


tiv-m 


nam 


ayvv-m 
ivvv-m 
iXavr-m 


a^m 
» ~ 
torn 

iXaam 


tgeeiv-m 


£Qi t am 


ytjQaax-m 


ytj(jaam 



II. Of roots that end with a vowel, some drop it before the 
added letters ; some change o into go, 8 into ?/, and others change 



s or o into i ; thus, 



Theme. Hoot. H. changed, let. add. New Pres. Fut. 

d[A-CCQt8m 

SQide'm 

torn 

dXdtm 

8VQ8m 

XAQ'tt 



CL\ILCtQZ8 
SQldE 

dXds 


a[A(ZQT 

fQid 

tm 
dXoq 


av 
aiv 

vvv 

<5X 


aiiagzav-m 
8Qidaiv-m 

Lmrrv-m 
dXbqax-m 


afiaQT^aoi 
ioid^aa 
£ooo"oo 
dXdijGm 


8V(J8 

dXo 


evQi 
dXi 


ax 
ax 


tvoiax-m 
dXtax-m 


evQ);am 
dXaam 



§10- 



§tm 



ax 



p< 



Primitive themes, now obsolete, are printed in capitals. 



§116 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 171 

III. Of roots that end with a x-mute or a T-mute, the final 
mute is sometimes dropped before the added letters ; thus, 



Theme. 


Hoot. R. 


changed. 


let. add. 


New Pres. 


Fut. 


1 nodyoi 


noay 


7i q a 


(7(7 


7iQaaG-(o 


TTod^CO 


2 ifjLudco 


luad 


ijia 


(7(7 


ipdao-a 


ifidaco 


3 y.odya 


y.Q(cy 


XQU 


t 


xgd^-co 


xqu^co 


4 ynddco 


qiQad 


CpQCl 


c 


(fOCi^-G) 


(fQU0(O 


5 &vi'jxo) 


&rrpc 


dry 


(7X 


&vi)a%-o} 


-Qv/jioo 



IV. Some form a new present from the second root changed 
before the added letters by inserting v f which before a ar-niute 
becomes [i ; thus, 

Theme. 2 Boot. 2 R. changed, let. add. Neio Pres. Fut. 

1 tiftco lad- ).ar& av lav&dv-co liftm 

2 b'i^co la$ la\i$ av lanfidv-co X/jxpo* 

V. By Syncope or contraction ; as, 

Pres. 

Velem by syncope OtXco Fut. deli'jGCQ 

eyeiQCO " "ErPQ 2 Aor. If. fffoofup 

oqtltcj by double syncope 6q).co Fut. Qcpeh'jG(o 

VI. By Reduplication, viz. of the initial syllable; — of the ini- 
tial consonant with * ; — and of i commonly called the improper 
reduplication ; as, 

Theme. New Pres. Fut. 

dym by Red. of initial syllable dydyco «ioj 

dtco M " cons, with ( didtco dfjGOJ 

nlzco " " M TTuirrXtoy, 47-19 7z).i' t G(o 

Gidco by improper Red. iGzdco GzijGw 

VII. By Metathesis or transposition of letters, which, however, 
rarely occurs ; as, 

Tlu'mc. Root. New Pres. Fut. 

dtQxco dtox by Metathesis 8qex dotx-co deQ^aj 

VIII. By Aphceresis, or cutting off the initial letters; as, 

i&elw by Aplneresis becomes -&tXco 
ioim u " qe<o 

IX. In several, two or more of these modes of variation com- 
bine to form the new present ; thus, 

1 By VI and II, yvooj becomes ytyvcoGxa, fut. yvcoGoo. 

2 By VI and I, dodco becomes oidodGXQ}, fut. doaGO). 



172 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117, 

3 By VI and III, da^oo becomes diddaaoo, fat. didd^co. 

4 By VI, fievoo becomes pifievco, and by V, pifivco, fut, fievto). 

5 By VI, texcq becomes ntixa, by V, tirxm, and by VII, tmi& 9 

fut. ri^co. 

6 By I, txGo becomes Ixdvco, by V, mow, by I, ixvico, ixviofiai, fut. 

i£co. 

7 By VIII, (T^fioo becomes ^«co, by VII, iyw, fut. both ££a> and 

ffp/(7C0. 



317.— §117. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR 
AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

EXPLANATION". 

In the following Table, the -words in capitals are the roots from which 
certain tenses are formed, but which are themselves either entirely ob- 
solete, or are merely supposed, in order to derive from them by analo- 
gy the forms in use. 

When there is but one root, or one form of the root, the numbers 
1, 2, 3, are omitted, as in ayo) ; — s. s. means samexsignification. 

The capital R after a tense indicates that the verb is conjugated re- 
gularly from the tense after which it is placed. 

A. 

*Ad(ti, to injure ; (R. aa.) pres. pass, adrai, 1 a. act. daffa, contr. aaa, 1 
a. pass, dda&tjv, mid. aaod[ir t v. Horn. 

"Ayafiat,, to admire; a passive form from dytjfit, Th, dydo), (R. dya,)', 
pr. and imp. like lara/tai,; dya^o/ua^, s. s. — fut. dyd- 
cro/uav, R. 

'Ayvva, ayvv/ut,, to break; from ayo), (R. ay,) £ <*;■«, &c, R. 1 a. 8a£a, 2 
a. p. iayrjv, 2 perf. taya, with a passive signification. It 
commonly takes the syllabic augment, probably owing to 
its having anciently had the digamma as the initial letter ; 
thus, pres. fdyo), 1 a. eFa$a, and then ea$a ; &c. 

"Ayo), to lead ; (R. ay,) f. ctioj, <fcc. R. It has a reduplication in the 2 a. 
nyayov, perf. jjya, and with the reduplication, ayrjo/a, 
(poetic ayvo), dyivo).) 1 a. tj$a, aijcu, aiaa&at. 

"Ado). See dvddvo). 

'Atloo), epic and poetic lengthened for aXqo). Regular. 

'A£$o). See avidvo).- 

*AritA,t>, to blow j (fr. do), R. a,) retains tj throughout ; as, drjvav, pass. 
drjfiav', except the participle cta'<,-, divroq: the passive form 
has an active sense. 

Alqiw, to take; (1 R. aloe, 2. J X, from' EA<1,) f. atQrjao), or -hm», <fce 
R. Attic fut. eho, 2 aor. tl/.ov, mid. tu.du^v, Alexandrian 
form for tttdftyv (239-5). Sometimes with an Attic redu- 
plication in the perfect; as, aQcitQfjxa, aQaigrj/nat. 



§117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 173 



Aiq«>, to raise; (R. aq, from 1-/P/2,) f. dow, p. ^xa, 1 a. r t oa, <fcc, R. 
Aio&dvoficu, to perceive ; (1 R. alcr&f, 2 aiad;) £ m. alakr t aonat,, tfce 

R. from M2QEOMA1, §116, IL 2 aor. fp&ofo-v. 
'Axa/i^to, to trouble ; (1 R. dxayt and dy, 2 a/,) f. dxay^ato, <fec. R. 2 a. 

with redup. r;/.ayov; prea Mid. dyoficu; perf. pass, axiy- 

yt/ucu, to be afflicted, to grieve. 
'A).ncdvt», tr. to mdb to groio ; (R. cLUfou*,) f. a^.Jaroi, Ac. R. imp. ij/.da- 

vov from "AAAJL 
'AXdrjG***, intr. to grow; (R a/.&,) f. (LUftfaw, <fcc. R. from AAA EJL 
'slXftivo), a).iouou> to shun; (R dhv, from 'AAEVJl,) 1 a. ?//*r<m, 1 a. 

m. rj/.tvciut]v and tj/.^dfi^v, by elision of <r for ^Xnxrdftnv. 
AAiSw, to avert ; (R. d/.^e and a/t*,) f. a.hzt)ao), (fee. from'AAEZE'Jl; 

1 a<>r. m. a/*id« /,■»>, &C. from' AAEICJL 2 a. poet. jy/aA- 

xov by redupL and syncope for tj/.txov. 
\4hvdlo), tr. to roll ; (R. u/.ivdt, and a/.t, from 'AAV J I) f. d/.t'<7o>, <fec. R 

1 a. p. part, dhvdn&t'u; ; p. p. part. dhrdr t uirov Mid. 

sense, to wander, to roam. 
\4).ia/.<», to take; (R. d).o,) f. d/.o>ffu), <tc. R from 'AAQ'Jl* 2 aor. 

tdkior, or y.ojv, from A A JIM I. This verb has a passive 

signification in the aorists and perfect active. 
\4hraivo), to be want in;/, to sin; (1 U. d).t,rt, 2 d/.ir,) L dhrt'iao), «tc. R. 

li a. tj/.LTur. 
"A/./.oiteii, to hop; (R. d). from" 4AJ1,) f. n/.unim, 2 a. r/zMin-y, R. 
A/.i'T/.io, d/.ia/.dyio, to avoid; (R. d/.i /.,) tut. a/.c;w, *fcc. R. from L-^yf Y". 

/v.'i, a >- M u/.i«). 
\-!/.<{tuv«), (\/.ii<iri't, d/.<{(iio>,) to gain ; (1 R. «/■/£, 9 «/.(/,) l'ut. d/jj jow t 
li. from ' AA'l'L'Jl. 2 a. //.i/or. 

' fuo.oTt'iVKi, 'o fir; (1 EL diinort , 8 'oo?.-r,) f. O^MK^ n ftf M , Ac. R. 2 a. 
r<.r, from A M Al'l E JL 
Uitua, to mieoarry ; (K. aftfilo t ) rat oV/MtMr*>j a< - - R- from aV- 

\-tn rrt/o, and (ii'mrty,. */">• 

\i('7iht/.'ur/A<), to r; (1 R. dfinkaxt, 2 d/*7r/ccx,) f. dunkax^ato, 

i/.ay.ov. 
AiKfuri'f ■>< 1 01,. 

Arayt.yi<)0-/j- (T/.«). 

Avoi/.io~/.o>, t'i read. Bee d/.irr/.to. 

'Avi)dvio, to plea** ; (l R. oJe, 2 «(V, 3 arV,) fut. a^ffw, <tc. R. from 

ct()t<.j, 2 a. Sot4ot> for rf tdda, with the syllabic 

augment, a a as ffdw. 

Avotyvvot, dvoiyrriu, dyoiyio, Iftnc and o)';'f,),) to op en J (R. o«y>) £ aroi;w, 
p. dvtioyu, itc. R. oil en wiih boUj temporal ami syllabic 
augment ; a<, imp. aW y/ o y, S perf. Aaeppa, ifcc. 

Avtoyo), to order; (R. drr.jy and firr.i-t,) t ftrr/i;"i.), ibc. R. <>r, dyW^Jtf'W) 

<tc R. from dvf>yi»>\ benoe, prea. imperative, aiw/^t, 

dvo'i/fto), A'-. Iiy syncope for drtoyiyfh, dvoyiTO), »fec. as if 
from 'ANJtTHMJ, i perl rpmfeu 
'Anai-qdw, to take away ; (from oare Vkd'AYPSl, EL «ro,) imperf. R. 
ajr^ifooeov, eontr. dnrjv^Mv, 1 aor. a,i/jroa, m. ebiwmpcS^*^, 
from a.Tarof.j. From this verb, or mure probably from 
'AnOVPJl, (the obsolete Th. of curot>p»£a>, to diepoeeeee,) 
comes 1 aor. inf. autowcu, part. o^roi'Otxc, and dnovqdftt- 
voi;, used by Homer, Pindar, and ilesiud, in the sense of 



174 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

"to rob;" "to plunder;" "to encroach on the limits^ or 

property of another." 
'yint/ddvo/Liai,. See i/9-dvo/uat,. 
^Ano'u.vfxi. See o).Xvi,a. 
\4qaqiaxoij from "ylPJL, to Jit, or adapt ; (R. ci^»,) fut. uqw and aqtrta 

(§ 101, 4, (6.)), p. ?y^/ta, &c. R. 2 pert'. iJQaya and aytjucc, 

with the Attic reduplication from »/^a. 
AqLgmo, to please ; (R. a^t,) fut. cc^eotoj, >/Ofza, <fcc. R. from «££<>>. 
Avi-o}, and ai>Sav<w, tr. £o increase ; (R. avSe,) fut. avtrjGo), tfec R. from 

AYZEJl; likewise, ae|<a, ae^ijao), &c. from "AEZE ii. 

Mid. intr. Zo increase. 
"A/ & open,, to be indignant ; (R. a/#f,) fut. a/dqao/uai., or -iao/ucu, <fec. 

R. from dy&iofiat,. 
"Ao). This verb has four significations in its different parts ; viz., 1. 

aw, fo 6jW> ; imp. dov, commonly dtj/nv. — 2. aw, to s/cey) ; 

1 aor. dcra, and a^aa. — 3. aw, fo satisfy ; f. aero;, 1 aor 

«0"«, pres. pass, dxav and aarat, inf. act. d/xevav. Horn. 

contr. for di^ivai, for common form atw.— 4. «oj, to in- 

jure ; see daw. 



Baivw, ftdo~y.o), fivfido), to go; (R. /9a,) fut. (3i']Gouai, p. pffitjy.ct, (fcc. R. 
from 1L4'J2 ; 2 aor. e/fyv, from BHM I ; imperat. /?/J#-t, in 
cuiupounds shortened, as, r.ardpa. JS". B. This verb has 
al?o the causative signification, to cause to go ; the future 
fitjao), and 1 aorist active Zfttjaa, have exclusively this sig- 
nification. 

Bdlko), to throw ; (1 R. ftaX, and ftcdt, 2 (2aX, 3 in compounds /9o/.,) fut. 
/?a).w (Poet. paXkrjGi»), fJtpd?>t]xa, <fcc. R. as if from BA- 
AE'Jl ; hence, by syncope, BAE'JL Hence the synco- 
pated forms efi/.qv, 'dfi/.tjro, (D.TjgQcu, for . tfidXrjv, iftds.rjTo, 
foPalriG&ai,, &c. Epic perf. pass. fitfJo/.ijuaL, as if from 
BOAE'JL 

Baard^o), to carry ; (R. fiaGtad, pass. paGtay, 211,) f. /Sourrctcroj, la. p 
ifiaGTdx&tjv. 

Blu'xtko), to live ; (R. (3uo,) fut. /Jtwdo), <fcc. R. from /?too> ; 2 aor. efiiow, 
from /9/oj^t (all in use). 

Blaardvw, to bud ; (1 R. /?Aa0Tf ; 2 ft).aar,) f. (i).aarr t ao). as if from 
BAA2TEJI, 2 a. tyMaoioy. 

BJmgxo), to go ; (R. ,«oA, as if from MOAS1,) 2 a. iuo'/.ov, f. m. fiolov- 
/tat, perf. psfifil.oixa (40-3d) for ftiftXutxa, as if from /</.6w 
(by metath. 40-8 th for homo), whence /i/.6w and p'/.waxw. 

Bodo), to cry out ; (R. jSoa,) f. fiot'jGo), Ac. R. The Ionics contract o^ 
into o),, making fiotaoiuai, for (Sovgoiiicu ; 1 a. tp'wffa for 
ifJoijoa. 1 a. p. inserts c, sfiiaa&ijv. 

Bogxo), tr. to feed ; (R. /?ocrxf,) f. fioo-xqao), <tc. R. from fioG/.to). 

Boi'do/xai,, to will; (1 R. /9o«2f, 2 /9oi^.,) f. ftov/.r'jGOficu., (fee. R. from 
BOYAE'Jl ; 1 a. p. ifion/.t'jd-tjv, and with double augment 
'fjftqv/.rjQ"t]v; hence also 2 perf. fttp'ov/.a. 

Bqwgm), fofi()o')Giio>, to eat ; (R. ,^o,) fut. /S^w(7w, tfce. R. from j9^ow-; 
2 aor. efiQwv? as if from p'^w/it. 



§ 117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 175 



r. 



Va/iiatj to marry ; (R. ya^n, and yct/u,) fat yau^nio, and yattio, ya/uo, 
1. in. yctf.it<jOf*cu, etc. R. 1 aor. iyd/itjoa, N. T. ; and f';/ <<a, 
as if from I A MSI, or fH'MSL 

Vivto, in Homer, Ae foojfc; probably J£ol. for t/.fro ; y being put. for .', 
and v for )., as in the Dor. qv&t for r^.Ot ; thus, f&Uro 
would become yivtro, and by syncope, j't'iro. — Also ytrro 
2 a. m. of yiroiicu by procope and syncope for tyirtro. 

rrj&to), to rejoice ; (1 11. yjfti, 3 y/#,) f yjydyfaw, 2 perf. yty^Oa, hav- 
ing the signification of the present. 

r^ctffxw, £o ^roio o/J ; (11. y;(/a, and ;'/;(-,) f. yt-oacro, (fcc. R. from 
ytjodoi ; 1 aor. tyi^'a, from J'H'PSl; y^udrai,, p res. inf. 
from ytjonju. 

riyvofiat, yivofiat,, to become ; (1 R. y*v;, 2 y*v, 3 yor,) fut. ytvt'jffojuat, 
Ac R. bum rENEJl, 2 pert yt'yura. 2s". 13. Allied to 
this verb is 

rtivoficuj to be born ; (11. ym',) used in the present and imperfect ; the 
first aor. tyHvdur t v is used actively, to beget, to bear ; hence, 
oi ynvdntvoi, parent* ; /) yn,rauivr n a mother. 

riyvo'wxo), yt,vo)G/.«), to know; (R. y»*o,) fut. yrwTot, p. Kyvwxa,lfut.p. 
yvuHF&jjaoficUf p. p. fyvtafffMUf R. bom liXO'Si; 2 aor 
tyvmr, from yvutpt, tub, yr«, opt yvui^v, imper. yvu>0i, 
inf. jtwrot, part, j-roi ,'• 



J. 

/f«>'w, *o />ur/j ; (1 R <)ra, 2 la, 3 la,) fut. ftonprw, ct<-. R. from AAEll, 
by epenth. from Acta ; whence p. i)ii)«« (§ 101, 5), 2 aor. 
p. j-'iUi/r, «>r act from iaijfu, from da JaVrraij and, 

by reduplication, AdeMrmt, ^<> foocA. 

Jam, to d'n \ to entertain ; (R. deu, an 1 (T«(V,) f. daiaot, more 

frequently daan, p. JloVxxo, Ac. R. from JA ZSi. 

Jam, to bum ; (1 11. c)ai, 2 da, 3 t)/;,) second perfect <)t<b«, regular 
through all its moods. 

Jativo), to bite; (1 R. <b;x, 2 da/,) fut. (b;io,«at, Ac. R. from JHKSl; 
v. t<)u/.ov. 

Jao&dvo), to tleep ; (1 R. daq&f, 2 flood - ,) fut. Saof) f';aoftat, Ac. R. from 
JAPSEll\ 2 aor. Kfaodor, poetic KAjpo&o*. 

^/Jw, *o/iw ; (1 11. oW, 2 t)t ( ), 8 <W, also 2 &, 8 6\, from //J'.'i,) fut. 
dtl(Td), p. dtVbixa, or Mfotxo, 2 perf. 6tdo*8a ; also from 
A] 11, 2 aon g&ov, 2 perf t)t»ha (poetice d.uhai, pL ShOo- 
u;v, by Byncope Sidtptr, Ac and imper. diSi&h with a 
present sense, to fear ; the middle diopcu, with its deriva- 
tives fodurxofta*! dfdiovoftat, Ac have an active significa- 
tion, "tofrigh 

Jtumxo, dtinvvpt, to show; (11. oV*x,) f. &*$«, Ac R. from JEl'KSl; 
Ionic AEKIi, hence «Je|w, l<fo|et, Sidfypa*, (fee. 

Jioucu, to need; (11. <W, from ihE OMA I,) fat dtijoofia*, Ac. R. In 
the active voice it is used impersonally ; as, d*f, dfr/oet^ 
Ac. See Impersonal Verbs, $ 114 



176 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

Jeo), to bind; (R. &,) f. Syao), <fec. R. 3 fat. pass, datyaofjiai,, seldom 

dtdyaoftcbi/. 
JoSaGno), to teach ; (R. dt,da/ f and SvSaoxe,) f. St,dd£o> (and dbSacrx/jao)), 

dtdida/a, &c R. § 116, IX. 3. 
didodaxo), to escape ; (R. doa,) fut. tydao), &e. (R. from dgdo), a regular 

verb in use) ; 2 aor. idotjv (from JPHM1), for which also 

edodv, ciq, d, &c. Subj. <?£o5, a?, a, <fcc, Opt. doairjv, Imp. 

dod&t,, Inf. ftyarca, pt. o^ac;. N. B. This verb is used in 

composition only. 
Joxio), to think ; (R. Sow, and <5ox,) f. dohh & c - & fr° m 40'KJl ; — also 

fut. doxriao), &c. R. but less in use than the other forms. 
Jvva/Liau, I can ; (R. dvva,) like ioTa/tat, f. dvvfjaofiat, &c. R. from 

AYNAOMAI; 1 aor. pass, iduvda&tjv and idvvrj&qv. 
Jvo), dvva), tr. fo enclose, intr. £o (70 info ; (R. Ji»,) fut. duffoj, didvxa, <fec. 

R. ; 2 aor. Mvv, from AY Ml. 



E. 

Eydow, tr. fo wake ; (1 R. ej/h(>, 2 ey*o, 3 iyoo,) R. Mid. intr. fo awake , 
2 a. r\yq6}it]v, by syncope for ■tjytqo/tijv, 2 p. a. iyg^yooa, 
reduplication anomalous. 

v Edoi, sa&o), and ia&io), to eat ; (1 R. £&, 2 l#, 3 itf, also 2 R. g>ay, from 
qpayoj,) fut. ideao), p. pass. idydfG/icti, for ijdta/uai, ; 1 aor. 
pass, tjdta&tjv from idew ; f. m. Mo/^at and iiov/icu ; 2 perf. 
?7<?a, Attice 'ddnda, p. a. 7/rfoKa (by change of vowel for 
tjdixa), Attic tdydoxa, 2 aor. act. eqxxyov, from qdyo) ; 
(eJo^at is rather the present used in the sense of the fu- 
ture.) 

'EBilvi, &eXw, S-iUo), I wish ; (R. idifa, and &th,) fut. idih\ao), and 
■d-f?.?jGo), Ti&tkrjxa, R. 

*E&o), I am wont ; only with Epic writers ; 2 perf. uo)&a, Ionic w&a, 
}l in the same signification. Plup. t iw&iw, I was wont. 

E1A11, to see ; (1 R. tld, ildt, 2 id, 3 old,) an old verb, which, in the 
active voice, has only the 2 aor. udov and Uov, used as a 
substitute for the aorist of oodo), to see — a verb which 
has only the present oodo, the imperfect woaov, Ioni<? 
Meow, Attic to')oo)v, and the perfect io^d/.a, perf. pass. 
idiqdfxav ; the other parts being made up from onrouat, 
and flow, as here. In the middle and passive, ttSm has 
the present ndo/iou, the imperfect tldoftrjv, 1 aor. tiad/^ijy 
(itisrdiutjv), like the Latin videri, meaning to be seen, to 
seem, to appear, to resemble. Eidon^v, or idopijv, the 2 aor. 
mid. is also used in an active, sense, particularly by the 
Attics, in the imperative Idov, XSia&i, as an interjection, 
see, lo, behold. 

Of this verb the 2d perfect ot(5"«, strictly I have seen, 
perceived, or comprehended, is never used as a perfect, but 
only as a present, meaning I know, having the pluperfect 
%l§uv, as an imperfect I knew, and the future m. liooncu, 
rarely tldrjGo), I shall know, or experience. The other 
parts, viz. the aorists and perf. are supplied from ytyvw- 
cxw. — For the parts of olda, see § 112, IX. 



§117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 177 



EJKSl, 1 resemble, I seem ; (1 R. (Ik, 2 JK,Z one,) is used only in the 
2 perf. ol/.a, Ionic eotxa, Attic ttxa, employed as a present 
in the sense of I aim like, I seem, I resemble. Inf. fix&vcu, 
part, d/.iiu, -via, -6q. Hence the adverh cmoton;. From 
this verb cornea plasm and Urxto, to compare. 

EV.iD and fi,//.w, to roll vp, press together, more commonly tu.to or f»2iw ; 
(It. ft/, ti/t, «>r tiktf) fut. -}'.o~«), etc. 1 aor. inf. i).<t<xi, HXacu, 
part, t/fxu.,-, perf. pas?, tt/.ucu, 1 aor. p. tc'o.r.v, inf. a//~m<, 
or cc/.i;nn'(ti, part. &Utg, all of which have sometimes the 
sfiirifns asper, and sometimes the spirifus leme. 

Elui, T am ; (K. f,) from £/£; fut. mid. tao/tat, imperfect ;)r. Bee 301. 

i Bllt 

£*/**, 7 q-o, comes from 1JI; £ m. dotyUM* p. na, Attice lyi'a, iniperf. 

i'juv, Ion. 'r'iu, met. Bee 303. 
£7/7/2, or Ell Si, to say ; used only in the aorists ; 1 aor. nna, 2 nnov, 

1 aor. mid. tindu^v. The initial tl- is retained through 

all the moods. Compounds used by the poets are tVfate, 

ivtG/ro), iriffTTit). The other parts are supplied from too), 

which 
Eioyoj, to shut out ; { ft. fioy,) f. tfy|<u, «frc. R. perf. pass. 3 pi. Uo/arcu, 

Epic for fioyfttroi, tiai, 272-12. But mo/it^i, t. ti^Sw, 

means ^o lAlff ?'//. 
'EAavvio, to drive ; (R. t/«,) fut. t/.do~o>, p. J;/«x«, tvc. R. from £Uiw, also 

in use. The Attic future is (U5, t/.u,-, t/u, &0. for (Xdtro), 

iXdoitq, Ac. 
"El.xot, and LLxum, /u draw; (R. t^.x and l/lx<*,) f. t/.|w and D.xvao), 1 aor. 

H/iU, .Vr. K. 

*Ev60-m, to shake, til agitate ; (R. trofl-,) 2 pert tjvofha, Att, tY/fvotfa ; used 
chiefly in compounds; as. jk;i-, <vrvu.'ti-v, dv-^voO-tv, <fcc. 

"Emi/ti, to clothe ; (It. t,) fut. turn ; p. pass. n',uu, and also toymt, from 
"2£/2; ftiM/a'i'j'i//t baa g>t«j for diiquoo) ; a/<g>t.cuw 

and etppuntai are rare forma of the same word. 

*Enoi. See *t7r«>. 

"F.7IO), to be actively employed: (1 R. far, 2 ovr,) 2 aor. to- .Tor and lano- 
fttjr, as if from SHE 11. Mid. fcropcu, to follow, fut. ti/'O- 
/<«*. See fcVu ; to be found chiefly in compounds. 

7.77 72, and fygo). See oiC». See also in ftoym. 

'b.uibaivio, to contend; (ft. ton)?,) rat fyufejffo), 4c. from'BPIJKJl, per 
epenth. from EPJ'JJl; hence titi'do, s. s. ; fut. t^icro), 
do. regular. 

"Eooucti. See too>. 

"Efao, to go away ; (R. foot,) f. tyurjmo, itc. R. from' EPPEJl. 

* Eovtrairii), to make red; (It. iov&i, and totvfr,) fut. lou&Tiao), <tc. (R. 
from 'El'YHEJl), and also fofvffM, as if from 'EPEY'HJL 

"EQ/o/uat, to go; (1 R. i).n-&, 2 f/.c#, 3 t/.i •#,) fut. iXtwra/tat, 2 perf. 
fj/.rO-a, Attice {/.t';/.,fru, from 'EAEY&Jl', whence also 2 
aor. act. r/z.Oor, by syncope for "HAYQON. For rj).&ov, 
i/.&nv, the Doric writers have rjv&ov, tvQ-tiv. In some 
tenses *t«t is more in use than ty/oiiou. 

"EPJl, by metathesis ytVo, and by epenth. ioia; also tt'^ro, by ep. nolo, 
from one or other of which the tenses in use are regularly 
formed; (1 R. to, £t, and tot, 2. to,) thus, from eooj, 1 aor. 
m. tjodntjv, from £t'w, fut. y/Jaw, and 1 aor. p. i^ij&fjv t 



178 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117 

and eoM&tjv'; from i^iai, fut. iotato, p. uqyxa, p. pass, tX~ 
(jTj.ucu, fut. ego), 2 a. m. rjQOfiijv; and. probably from dqioi, 
comes the fut. tl(j)'jO~Ofiav. 

"Eoo/A-ab, in the sense of to as&, occurs chiefly as an aorist to iqondu), 
scil. tiqoiA.TjV, subj. &Qo)jiiai>, imp. eooD, also f. igrjoofiav. 

'Ead-'m, to eat ; used in the pres. and. imp. for ido>. See eSa. 

El'ido), tj sleep; (R. ri>Se,) fut. fvS/jao), <fec. R. from EYJE'Sl, augments 
the initial vowel, thus, tjvSov; so in compounds, xa&ijv- 
§ov, &a. 

Ei>(jI<txo), to find; (1 R. svqs, 2 ${>(>,) f. tvQyoo), &o. R. from EYPE Sl,hj 
epenth. from EY'PSl; whence a form of the 1 aor. m. 
fVQa/trjv. This verb has e before -8rjO~of,iav and -0 r\v ; as, 
ivqe&ijv; 239-5. 

^EySdvofiav and a7tix0a.vof.iai,, I am hated; (R. i'/9-t,) fut. iyS^aojuav, 
perf. p. )jx&7]jLiai,, R. from iy&eo/uav, from e/<9o), poetic, 
and used only in the present. 

"£/«, to Aave; (1 R. !/, and 07*, 2 a-/,) fut. i£<u (with the aspirate), or 
ayr/ao), p. taytjxa, &c. R. from 2XE SI, also o-/LQ<», 2 aor. 
ea/ov, subj. <r^w, opt. a/oiqv, imp. fl^e?, inf. o~/tiv. This 
verb has another form of the present and imperf. mt/oj 
and iayov, in the sense of ^o //o/^ which has the future 
a/fjao), <fcc. ; so also ayiOio, wytQov. In the compounds 
observe the following varieties ; viz. drt/(o (for which 
also dvaa/iQ-o)), in the middle has a double augment in the 
imperf. and 2 aor. rjVfi>XOfii]V, i]vea'/6utjv: dnjtiyu), to en- 
close, has f. a/Li(pt£<o, 2 aor. ?jfi7ivo~yov; mid. duniyofiav or 
df.invaxviof.iav, to wear ; fut. dfiq>iz.o,uat, 2 aor. ijfinvayofitjr; 
vTtvo'xveofiav, to promise, fut. vTioayrjaofiav, tfce. R. 

™Eipo), to cook; (R. £\/>£,) fut. iyrjo~v), &c. Reg. from' E l I>E'SL 

"ESI, to place ; (R. I,) Defective, 1 a. ?*o"a, f. m. nooftav, 1 a. m. titrd/u-rjv. 
The derivatives from this root are, 1. 17/uu, 7s?7 (perf. for 
tifvav), 307; 2. efo/tat, £0 se£ down (wkence itw and y.a&i- 
£0), R.); 3. tvvvfiv, to clothe; and, 4. t'tyut, to send, tjo~o>, 
etna, R. 304. 

Z. 

Z«oj, to Zwe ; (R. fa,) f. m. Zfaofiav ; 2 aor. tv/fv, as if from ZH3I1. 
For the contractions of this verb, see 251, Obs. 2. To 
supply the defective parts of this verb, tenses are bor- 
rowed from fivoo). 

Zevyvvo) and tivyvvfiv, to join ; (1 R. feuy, 2. fry,) f. &$■«, Afl. R. from 
ZEY'ISl, 2 a. p. ^vyr/v. 

Zowvvo), Zo'wvvfiv, to gird; (R. £o,) f. Cwo*w, <fec. R. from tow. perf. pass. 

£L,0)fff<,av. 

H. 

"Hdo>, to sweeten, to please ; (R. yd,) f. rjoo), <fec. R. s. s. as artfdrw, 

which see. 
*Hftav, to sit ; see"£J2, and 307. 
"HfiL, by aphseresis for q>i]fiL, I say; likewise nv, ri, for e<fm; lyr. See 

309. 



§117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 179 

t 

a 

f-)iho. See l&iha. 

Vqqio), to be amazed; (1 R. &r t (f>, 2 &aq, 3 #>;?), used only in the 2 aor. 
erayov, and 2 pert". zifrrjna, in which the second aspirate 
is changed instead of the first, contrary to 43-4. 

Brjydvfa, to sharpen; (R. #//y,) f. Or'j'S<n, tire. R. from Jhyfoi, s. s 

(-Jiyyuv(t), to touch ; (R. #ty,) £ &i£a, sVe, R. from #/;r.) ; 2 aor. eOiyav. 

h)v?ja/.o), to die; (1 R. #raand &uv, 2 #ccv,) f. in. &avotfieu) p. ridrr^/.a, 
and by syncope, ri&raa, whence tlie common forms, ri&- 
vauiv, rtfrvuGLV, rtOvuvai,, ifcc. (205-5, 6, c) ; from (-)_■! \\ Jl 
comes f. m. Oxtrovpcu, and 2 aor. a. tOavov. From the p. 
a. rt&v^y.u, comes a new present tt&vyxv, f. t«< /)»■/,';<.;. 
Parts also occur as if from a form in /<<,; thus, ri&va&i, 
Tf&vaitjv, as if from tid^ijfu. 

Boqvvo), doovtfth &iJ0)(T/.«>, to leap, or spring ; (R. froo, fro»n OO'PJl,) 
f. m. Q-opoTuru. Ion. ftoutourn, 2 aor. tOonnv. 



iJi'V'iVJl, tdqvfu, from ,\W<.), Reg. tr. to set, or place; [Ti \)oa and 
i'()oiv,) £ l<)ot'<Tt<>. ike K» 1 aor. p. idqitvihtjv. 

I'^o'w, i&tf, to s> ' ; (R. <-<<. and i<V,) fut, /L'/yixi.*, &0» R. from u'ftw ; and 
<'<Tci, ttc. It. from (£». In like manner y.a!) l^ui'vi, y.u^i^io, 

En. 

"h;uv. to 00 ; pres. m. iWu. 

7/ ; «t, /" *"/</; (R» f.) f. ^<roi, 1»- ><*«. 1 aor. yxa, from < 7£LT2, ! 

'Jjtaycj, txrto/«cu, to coww ; (R 2*,) from um», s. a. EL whence they have 

f. m. i';o/<ca, perf I ', f. 



pert i J nor. ixoprjv. 

parte occur 



'7/.«<Txonat, to propitiate; (K. «/.a, j f. Maae/iaU) ac. It. from ulaoj; w 
LIHMJ, intr. /o be propitious, of which some pa 



in Homer. 

",',7r«l'ftl. See .TiTO/(rtt. 

"Jarjit,, to know ; m. i'o-a/tai, used in the singular number by Doric wri- 
ters only, bee fi'Jw. 
"J(j/o>. See b/o>. 



Kafrt~oiicti, to sit : (/.aTu and tto«ra, EL *<),) fut. xa^^Jor-wrtt, 1 aor. p. 

t/.ic'nu.'j > t »-. 
K flu at. Se( 

r; (R. wtJU,) f. xf//;rr(i/ati, «kc R. from xt/.toficti. 
Kf(fCtWUU>, xK^dmiu, to nt',.r; (R. KtOCt,) fut xtydaw, ite. Reg. from 

Kfoaoi. Sometimes xexodxa, by syncope for jtexsoaxa, in 
the perf activ'< in the perf. p. ■/.i/.i/anai ami Ion. 

xtAi>ri"ii. Sometimes i'> inserts a before -U/^tohcu, in 1 f. 

also /<^va<o, from which 
*i(jv*ifUi 8. >. imper. xigvn for y.iyvaDt,. 
Kfjdo>, tr. ,'o /.'.(.'. anxious; (1 II. ki/o E KJ^ijffM, 2 p. *lxfj&f< s 

v. i tli a present intransitive Sense, fa //<.- curious. Whence 
the LLnieiic future /.;/.ai)/ ( 'rr*»/««i.. 



180 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117 

ICtQdalvo), to make gain ; (R. xtqdouv, and xiqSa,) f. xtqSavo) and xfQ- 

§tjO(» ; perf. xtxeydyxa, or -axe*. 
IG/dvo), to overtake; (1 R. xv/i, 2 xt/,) f. /.v/rjao), <fcc. R. from xt#e«; 2 

aor. Bat/ov, and from KI'XHMI, ixi/rjv. 

i£tw, to #o ; not used in pres. indie, but in the other moods and imperf. 

ind., and is accented like the 2 aor. 
KXdto), to cry aloud ; (1 R. xXayy, 2 xXay, 3 xXtjy,) f. y.Xdy£o>, &c. R. 

from xXdyyo) ; 2 perf. xixXriya, as if from xXyZw. 2 a. ex- 

Aayov. 
KXim, to hear ; (R. xAp,) Reg. except the imperative pres. x/.i/#<-, as if 

from KA YMI, as well as xlvf, reg. 
KoQivvw), yioqivwtiiy to satisfy ; (R. xo^f,) f. xo^ecojand xooyao), <fcc. R. 

from xooio) ; p. p. xfxo^foytcu. Kogio), reg. fo sweep, is a 

different verb. 
Kgdko), to cry ; (R. xoay,) f. x^alw, <fcc. R. except the imperative per- 
fect xixQa/du, 2 a. Hxqayov. 
Kgefiavvvo)) xqifxdvvvfxv, and xqr\fivr\^i, to hang ; (R. x^fjtta,) f. xqffidffo), 

<fec. R. from KPEMA'JL Attic f. jc^f/tw, «?, a, <fcc. 264, 

(1). Perf. p. y.(jifA,afA,av without the augment. 
Kreivctj, to kill ; (1 R. xxtw, 2 xrav, 3 xxov,) fut. xttvoj, <fec R. ; 2 aor. 

sxravov, and cxTJ/r from KTHMI. 
KvMvdo), to roll ; (R. xuAt,) fut. xvXiaoi, <fcc. R. from xi^tw, s. s. 
Kvvio), to kiss; (R. xwf, and xi»,) fut xvvtjffoi, <fec. R. ; also xwr<4 <fec. R. 

from xuw. 

Aay/dvo), to receive by lot ; (1 R. Xtj%, 2 /a/, 3 Xoy/,) f. A^Se^ &c. R. from 
AH'XJL 2 aor. eXa/ov, perf. W.oy/a. § 101, 5. 

Aafifidvo), to take; (1 R. A^/9, 2 Aa/9, 3 Xrjfi,) f. m. X^'O/uau, p. tXXrjya. 
<fec. R. from AH'BJL Ionic perf. XtXdfiTjxa; likewise f. 
A.d(A,\po/j,av, <fec. R. as if from AA'MBJL Also of the same 
signification, — 

Adto(iav, Xdt,vficu, dep. Ionic and Doric forms for Xaufidvo). 

Aavddvux, to be hid; (1 R. Xtj&, 2 Xa& t 3 ;.?/#,) f. ;.^<rcrt, <fcc. R, from 
Xti&o); in the middle voice, — 

Aav&dvo/ucu, sometimes Xij&o/uctt; to forget; f. X^o-opou, <fcc. from the 
same. 

Aovo), to wash ; (R. Xov,) in the Attic dialect generally omits by syn- 
cope the short vowel after ov ; thus, eJlou, eXov/mv, Xov/xai^ 
Xova&av, <fec. for eXovt, eXovo/nfv, Xovo/iai,, Xovia&cu, &c. 

Aovio), in some of its tenses occurs in Homer. 

Am, to will ; found only in the sing. XCo, ;.%•, Xr\, plur. Xo) f itq, Xmti., Doric 
as if from AA'Jl, contracted Jik'e tfccw, 251, Obs. 2. 

M. 

Mavd-dvoi, to learn ; (1 R. fia&i, 2 fia&,) fut. /ua&rjGo/icu, p. fiffid&tjxoy 

&c. R. from M ABE SI; 2 aor. eua&ov. 
Mdxofiat, to fight; (1 R. ^a/*, 2 fia/,) fut nayr.oonai, and /uavfooitcu, 

&c. R. from MAXE0MA1. 



§117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTiyE VERBS. 181 

Mao), an old form from which arise the three following defective verbs ; 
viz. 

1. Perf. fii^aa, to strive ; with a present signification. 

2. Pre8. m. fidoftat,, contr. ftoificu, to desire, to seek. 

3. Fut. and 1 aor. m. ftdaoftou, ifiaadftqv also from /taioftcu, to 

seek. 
Mt&vaxo), to intoxicate ; (R. fii&v,) f. fii&vcroi, <fcc. from ftt&vo), a. s. 
MiXoi, to care for ; (1 R. fteXe, 2 ftsl, 3 firjX,) f. ftO.rfiM, from MEAE'Il. 

2 aor. efifXov, perf. fti/trjXa. In the active voice it is used 

mostly in the third person impersonally, fiiXtv, tfifXt, <fcc. 

§114,2. 
MiXXto, to be about to be ; (R. /tiXXf,) i fit/.Xqao), <kc. R. from ftfXX.ia). 
Mrjxdo/ACit,, to bleat ; (1 R. ftyxad, 2 ftax, 3 ftrjx,) f. fir t xdaouai>, &c. R. 

(ftyxdto), 8. 8.) 2 aor. euaxov, 2 perf. f/ifitjxa, from MH'KJl. 
Miyvvo), ftlyvvfti, ftlffyo), to mix; (R. f*i>y,) I. fti^o), <fec. R. from ftiyu, 2 

aor. ifiiyr;v from Ml J HM1. 
Mifivrjaxo), to remember ; (R. jivex,) fut. ftvqao), <fcc. R from ftvdo). 
Moqyvim, uoqyvvft^ to wipe off ; (R. fiooy.) f. ^o^Sw, <fcc. from MO'Pni. 
Mvxdoftcu, to bellow ; R. Doric forms, 2 a. Iftvxov, 2 p. ftifivxa, as if 

from MY'KJl. 



N. 

JVaio), intrans. to dwell ; (R. ret,) f. vdao), <fce. R. from vdo>, trans. to causa 

to dwell. 
Ni^io, to wash ; (R. vltc,) f. Wyoj, (fcc. R from vlmoi, s. s. 
Noiot, to think; reg. is contracted and accented by the Ionics like 

(Jodo) ; thus, f. votau), 1 a. tvioaa, tvivojro, <tc. 



O^wt <o *me// ; (R. 6S, and Kf») f. offat, R. also <k«t« and ttjaox, p. 
wwi/xa, <fce. R. from 'OZEJl, 2 perf. u>da, with the Attic 
reduplication odwdoc, with a present sense. 

Olyvvox, otyvi'fti, to open ; (R. oty,) f. o£w, <kc. R. from otywt See avotyax 

Oida. See rffo, and 310. 

Oldaivoj, olddvok oidivxo), to swell; (R. otJ*,) £ olS>' t aui, &c. R. from 
qjdio>, Th. s. a. 

OtOjaat., and oiftai, to think ; (R otf,) f. oi^aoftat, <£c. R. from olioftcu>; 
imperf. o)6,iirjv; 6i<>k with the diphthong resolved, is re- 
tained in some dial. 

Ut/Oficu, to go; (R. ol/f,) f. ol/rjaofiat, p. oi/tjficu, R as if from OlXEO- 
MAI. 

OXrt&aivoi, 6hoOdv«\ to glide ; (1 R oha&t, 2 6ha&,) f. o/Uo-fbfffc^ tfcc 
R. from bho&iui, 8. s. ; 2 aor. w/«r#ov. 

'OA/i'oa, o/lifu, to destroy ; (1 R. sir, 2 o/, 3 o/,) f. o/tffw, <tc. R. from 
'OAE'Jl; Att. fut. a. o/(7>, m. o/ojVcu, 2 aor. ojXoutjv, p. wAa, 
Attice 6'Ao^a. Other forms are 67/oj, 6/t'xw, oXiaxm. 

*Ouvi(o, oftvvfit>, to swear ; (1 R. 6/uo, 2 6«, from v QMJl,) £ bftoaw, &c. 
R. from 'OMO'JL, commonly with the reduplication in the 
perfect; f. m. oftovftcti from "OMJL 
9 



182 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. §117. 

* OnoQy vi'w, 6^6oyn>fu, to wipe off; (R. c^juoQy,) f. Ofiooto), <fcc. R. 8. 8. as, 

fiooyvvo), which see. 
"Ovtjfti,, bvlvrifik, to help ; (R. ova,) f. hvr\aw, <fcc. R. from *ONA'JL. 2 a. 

wvrjfiriv. 
'OyitaLvo), to rush ; (R. oQ/tct,) f. oq^go), <fec. R. from oQfido), 8. 8. 
'Oqvvo), oQWfit,, to excite ; (R. oq,) f. oogo), (§ 101. 4. (6.) ) from "OPS1 ; 

f. o^w from oyo), 2 perf. oqo)oa ; hence a new present, 

o^eroj, s. s. and also o^jcoqo). 
'OtffpQalvojtctb, to smell ; (R. oGygcuv and oo"¥>(>a,) fut. oo"<p(> uvovjucu, R. 

and oGqQfjGo/tat,, <fcc. R. from 'OSftPE'OMAI, by epenth. 

from oGtyQOftai,, from which wGcpoofiyv ; hence also o^^au, 

and baq>qa.ofiai>, s. s. 
Oxndo), ovxdtw, ovxaGxo), OY'THMI, to hit, to wound ; (R. ovxa y ) fut. 

ouxaGio and ovxyGot, &c. R. from ofraw, infin. ovrdutvcu, 

Horn, for ovxdvav. 
OytiXot, o(f>Xo), 6(pXiaxdvo>, to ovoi ; viz. money, punishment, i. e. to be 

guilty ; (1 R. 6q>tiXt and 6q>Xf, 2 6q>tX,) f. 6q:ti,X-qGo> and 

6cp?.vo~o), &c R. from bqaiXioi and 6<f>Xto) ; 2 aor. wqrf/ov, 

used only in the expression of a wish ; thus, s!'^ wgf/.oi', 

that 1, tl'tf otqxXiq, that thou, &c. 
OqiXi^Gxavot, to forfeit ; (1 R. 6(pXt, 2 6<pX,) f. og///;trw, p. Ji^-i^za, 2 aor. 

wy/ov. 

77. 

flaio), to strike ; (R. Trat and naut,) f. naiGo) and ncurjGo) ; the remain- 
ing tenses are from the root 7iat. 

ride/a, to suffer ; (1 R. 7rfv t 9-, seldom /ratf-*, 2 ;ra#, 3 novft,) fut. m. 
'mlffofiao, § 6, IS ; 2 perf. ninovSa ; both from JIENQJ1 , 
2 aor. t7ia&ov, also fut. na&JGa), (fee. R. from TIAQE'SL 

Tlarionav, to taste, to eat ; (R. Tra, from UA'Jl,) 1 aor. inaadfiriv, p. p. 
7r£7ra07fcc«.. 

Uiaao), to digest ; (R. nfn,) f. ttri/'w, <fec. R. from ninxo), s. s. 

ritxavvvo), Titrdvviifiv, to expand ; (R. 7r*ra,) f. TUtdau), R. from nixdu), 
exc. p. p. ne/zxa/nai,, which is from the syncopated form 
Trrao). Other forms are noxvdo) and nlxv-rjui, s. s. 

JJtrofictv, nirafxau, mxdoiJiai,, to fly ; (R. ;rfTa,) f. mxrjGouai,, <fec. R. 
from mrdofxav ; 2 aor. enxyv from iTzrrjui, ; also p. p. tt?- 
7z6rt]fA-cti> from noxdo/uat; by syncope sxtrofi^v becomes 
tnxo^v, and so of other tenses. 

Jliifvov. See </>evo>. 

TItjogo), mjyviw), mjyvvpt, to fasten; (1 R. 7r^y, 2 Tray, 3 7^,) f. roflai, 
<fec. R. from 77HT/2 ; 2 perf. nintjya,*! a. pass, ixdyrjv. 

XliXvdoif TiD.VTjfit,, to approach ; same signification as 7r*/aau, from 
which the other tenses are taken. 

n^7zkdvo) and niimXrifu,, to fill ; (R. 1IAA, whence 7ii/*7tXijfti s ) f. 7rA^ 
o-o), <fec. R. from 11AAJI ==* nXTjS-o). When, in composi- 
tion, fi comes before the initial n in this word, it is omit- 
ted before nX ; as, e/n7tijtXij/u ; so also in 

tlifA,7TQr]fn t to burn ; (R. 7ioa,) f. ng^Go), &o. R. from TIPA'Sl = TtQtj&M. 

flivo), to drink ; (R. no and m,,) fut, ttoWo), <fec. R. from DO'Sl ; 2 aor. 
zTtiov from Trtw, Th. ; imperat. commonly nl&ir, sometimes 
nii ; fut. m. nlofAUby probably the present used in the fj- 



§117. IRREGULAR A XI) DEFECTIVE VERBS. 183 

t.ure sense ; or by elision of o* for nlaofjiay', movuat. is 

also found. From this theme also comes 
TLiniaxw, to cause to drink ; (R. til,) f. 7rUfo), tfcc. R. from ni». 
rhnodo-xo), to sell ; (R. noa, from JIPA'Jl.) The forms in use are ni- 

nudxa, ninqducu, inqd&tjv, ninqdaofiaA. The future 

and aorist active are wanting. 
nimu), Atiic and poetic nirvio, to fall ; (1 R. nix and ttto, 2 ma, 

from 11E2EJI,) f. niao), 1 a. tmaa, from the ancient 

HE Til; and 7Zto'>cfo), p. 7r£7rro;xa, from TITO'JI; 2 aor. 

intaov, f. m. ntaovfiat,, as if from JJESESL 
nXdZo>, to lead astray ; (1 R. n).ayy, 2 n'Mty,) f. 7rAay|o>, <fcc. R. from 

7r/.etyyoj ; 2 aor. tn'/.ayov. 
nXr>o~<ro), to strike ; (1 R. ;r/j;y, 2 ^/.^y for 7r/.ay,) f. nlfto), <fec. R. exc. 

2 aor. p. ini.i\yt]v ; compounds regular throughout. 
TIPIAMAJ, to buy ; of which there is in use only 2 aor. iTiotdfitjv, as 

an aorist to owionai,. 
[Jw&dvofiair, to learn by inquiry ; (1 R. 7iiv& t 2 7tv&,) f. ntvGOfiou, <fcc. 

R. from poetic 7iti>&o/uai ; 2 aor. m. tnv&ontjv, pert pass. 

7T£;Tt'0>CU. 



Pt^oj, tQ&0, M EPrj>, to do ; (1 R. pf? and toy, 3 if? from 2 UfT,) fut. 

^t|w and fy(e>, sC, R. 2 per£ Sooyo. 
'Piw, to flow ; (R. (j^r and £t* f ) f. uti<cro> and {tvrjGu), p. f^jW^xa, <fee. R. 

from yctw, 2 in>r. pa->. tuut'^v. 
t Pr l yfvot, <jijy«M'/i*, tr. /o 6r?aX: ; (1 R. £/;y, 2 £ay, 3 $wy, irreg.) £ Qrj$«>, 

i\.r. R. from (i/^aiii (i. e. 'PH'l'Jl), s. s. 2 perf. ey(}wy«, 

with intrans. signification, 7<z//< torn in pieces. 2 a. pass. 

'Ptovvro), §o>vvtfu, to strength* tn ; (R. £o,) f. $MffM, <tc. R. from 'PO'JL 



2. 

JSfiivnm, afitwv/in, to txtinguith ; (R. <r/fr,) f. afiiooi, <fcc. R. from <t^>h,> ; 

also p. MafiifMOj 2 a. Mcfiijv, intr. /o yo om| ; from 2BHM1. 
Siixa, to move, impel ; leg. except that, like \t.-il» beginning with u, 

it commonly doubles a after the augment, and, in the 

1 aor., omits n, the tense-sign ; thus, 1 aor. tootva, mid. 

ioaudu^v, |>eif. pass. IffVUpO*, 235, Obs. 
Sxitiavvvio, a/.tddvvi'/ut,, axidrdio, (jxiavr^u, to scatter ; (R. axtda,) fut. 

axtddao), Attic axtdo>, <fcc. R. from o~/.tddu> ; p. p. iaxi- 

Saff^cu. 
~xt)J.o), to dr>i up ; (R. axfX and a/.ah.) t nxtho, R. also (maj.rjao), p. 

tax/.r/xa (by syncope lor tny.d/./;xa), 1 aor. trrxjyjla, 2 aor. 

tijx/.^i; from SJLAHMJ 
S/ndo), Gpr^, &C. 251, C6«. 2, 2o wipe; (R. r/Ml and Gnrj,) f. ff^jyffw, 

itc. 1 aor. p. iaftrix&r t v, from a/uTj/o), s. s. 
— .Tertfo), /o maA-<? a libation ; (R. ff^frcV,) f. antiav), <fcc. R. §6, 18. 
UroQiwwaj aroqivn in, to spread; (R. trioo*,) f. aroqiffu), <fcc. R. from 

2TOPKSl\ als«, 



184 IRREQULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. §117. 

StQOivvvi)), <TTQa)vvvfii>, to spread; (R. o~xoo,) f. gtqwgo), &o. R. from 
ZTPO'JL, by metathesis and syncope from STOPEJL 

2/flv. See e/w. 

£(t)L,o), to save ; (R. o~o)d or go*,) f. gmgm, <fcc. R. exc. 1 aor. pass, iaw&ti* 
instead of ioo')o~8r]v and iaaw&^v, from the older form 
<raow. 



T. 

TaXao), to bear ; (R. x).a,) f. xXtjGw, <fcc. reg. from the syncopated form 

rActw, s. s. ; 2 aor. erXtjv, from xkrjut,. 
Te/*rw, £o cw£ ; (1 R. t?,m, also t^c* and Xfiyy, 2 rot/*, 3 to//,) fut. Tf^w, 

reg. also f. xfirjGo) and xutjSo>, from r^aw and T/u?jyo) ; 2 

aor. era/tov and 'ix/xavov, — sometimes extuov. 
Tiqffoficu, intr. fo dry ; 2 aor. inf. pass. xfyrjvat, and xfQGyutvcu, as il 

from ixi^G^v. 
Tixuov and trixfiov, a defective 2 aorist used in Homer, fo me<?£ w^A, 

Tlxro), to bear ; (1 R. t**, 2 t*k, 3 tox,) f. xilo), &c. R. from TEKSl; 

2 aor. Zxtxov, 2 perf. rtroxa. 
Tivo), xwvvbi, xlvvvfxiy to expiate ; (R. rt,) f. xLgo), <fec. R. from rtw, to 

honour. 
TVroaw, xtxyaivo), xix^tjut,, to bore; (R. r^a,) f. XQr t ao) y (fcc. R. from 

T^aw. 
TiX(JO)ay.o), to wound ; (R. T(>o,) f. rowffw, <fcc R. from xqoo). 
Tqi/o), to run ; (1 R. &Qt/ and Sqccu, 2 d^a/x,) f. Oqiiu), p. (TfcTodt/ 77x0c, 

244, -£"a;c. <fec. R. from JPA'MJl ; 2 aor. tSgcifUiv, t m. 

d'(>a/!A.ovfjcti>. 
Toi'/w, £o consume ; (R. xQvyo,) 1 aor. croi'/wca, <fcc. 
Tvyxavo), to be, to obtain; (1 R. rt'/f and my, 2 T17,) f. Tiyijtrw, <tc. 

R. from TYXE'Sl; 2 aor. exr/ovy fut. m. tc&OjUcu from 

Tfi'/oj. — iVote. This verb must be carefully distinguished 

from the regular kindred verb xfi'/m, to prepare ; fut. 

?£l'£(it), <fcc. R. 

F. 

Ymff/vioftai,, to promise ; (from »j7r6 and ff/lo;,) f. vTzoG/vGOfiat,, <fcc. R. 
from f YIIOSXEOMAI. See £*«. 



<2>. 

fpdyouctt,, pres. m. to eatf ; (R. <pay,) also the future for qwyovficu, in the 
N. T. and later writers by the same anomaly as edofiou 
and niouav ; 2 aor. eyayov. The rest of the tenses are 
formed from sg&Io). See tdu. 

0da*oi. See gj^iu. 

4>&vo), tc kill ; (1 R. yev, 2 qpocj-,) 2 aor. 7iiq>vov and zntyvov, by redupl. 
and syncope for I'qpocvo? ; part. 7i£q>vo>v, accented on the 
penult, p. p. 7z£q>auat, 3 f. p. niq/jjaoficu. Hence poyoc, 
from 3d root <pov. 



§117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 185 



<Pfy<o, to bear ; used in the pres. and imperial R. ol, er?x, and tvtyx, 

2 htyx, 3 hoy.) f. e&w (from OJJl), ^."HNEXA, Ac. R. 

from "ENE KJl ; also 1 f. pass. oioOr.aouai ; 1 aor. act. 

?;vtyx<x for )]vhyta, from 'ENETKJL, Attice commonly 

t'tvu/.a, Ac ; 2 aor. t;rtyxov, from the same ; 2 perf. ijvoya 

from 'ENE'XJL 
<t>rin'i, to say ; (R. qpce,) f. g>;erw ; 2 aor. tyjyv. See 809. 
<l*S-dv(i), to come before, to anticipate ; (R. </ #a,) f. q&dam or y&TjOot, 

<tc. R. from (Jj&A'JI, 2 aor. KpJhrr from q&r^u. 
<l>&lvo), to corrupt, to fall ; (R. q>&t,) f. qfiiao), Ac. R. from q<0'n», s. 8. ; 

other forms are q>&io~Oi», qdtrto), and q&wu&a), used in 

the pres. and imperf. 
0oayvv(D, qodyvvfxi,, to enclose ; (R. g^ety,) f. qqdtw, Ac. R. from tyPA- 

I Jl f same as qydao~M, s. 8. 
tf>i'£o>, tof.ee, to put to flight ; (R. g«7,) f- g»'i">, Ac. R. Other kindred 

forms are gryw and qn'yo), R. and it has the derivatives 

qpi'Cctri) and pvtijft*. 
tPi'Qo), to mix, to knead ; (R. qvo and qroa,) f. qvodao), Ion. q>vQrjffo) ; old 

fut. pu£<ro>; 1 a. cgi^da; ]». p. niqiqucti and ntqvqancu. 
<Pu<i), to beget ; (R. gr,) f. qvao), 1 aor. tqiaa. But the perf. niqi'xa, 

and 2 aor. t^j-v, have a passive or intransitive significa- 
tion, to be begotten, to be, to become. 



Xcuoj, /ai'Oai'w, to r><><l> , (•> stand open, t<> eonta >' . (R /«<J.) fut /ouw, 
fa. H. from XjiASl (a s. with KA'/AL, whence xtxaa^a* 
or xe'xa^at.) ; 2 tor. fyaSoP and RAtaAe*, 'J perf. xt/ccda ; 
derirativee and varieties of forma art- numerous. 

Xou'voj, ydaxo), yuaxd^io, to gaj>e or yawn . (R. /our,) f. jfomi, Ac. R. 
from yaivu), a derivative from XufJl', from which also 
xcuw and /cuw ; which see above. 

Xaigo), to r'„«>< ; (1 EL /«'(', later yetint, 2 /«(», 8 /',('>) f- /cuotjOO), 
sC. K. ; 2 a. p. tydn^v, per£ y.tyd(Jtj/<cti. and /.iya.i> pai. 

Xavddvo), to grasp; (1 R. /ard, />n), 2 /«(), :-> /an),) f. m. ytiaoficu, 
18; 2 aor. tyadov, 2 perf. xt'/a»c)a. 

A'«(Txo). See /aire). 

Xio>, to pour out ; (R. ytv,) f. yttaot, Ac. R. 1 aor. i/tvact and t/*a (by 
elision for t'ynoct) ; hence imperative /tor, ynixoi, Ac. 
infinitive /tat ; also f. /to, /«'«",. /m, mid. ytonai. 

Xodoi. This verb has live different forme, with as many different sig- 
nifications ; root of all, you. 

1. yjie'uo, to <j\e< an oracular f*ponse ; regular. 

2. y.iyyriti, to lend ; like i'<tt//u. 

3. /©», ft t* necessary ; partly like verbs in /<* (see Impers. 

' Verba, £114). 

4. ZQowpct*, to use; in the contracted tenses takes r\ for a, 

251, 00* 2. 

5. dno/ij),, it suffices ; pi. d7ToyQo>at,Y, inf. a7ro/o^r, Ac. 
Jlpo>vvvo), /(x.W'viyu, fo colour; (11. /(>o,) f. yqo'rto), Ac R. p. pass. x£- 



186 SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. §118.119 

Xoyvvio), /^vvvfib, to heap, to dam ; (R. /<>,) f. ywGw, &c. R. from /dw, 
s. s. perf. pass, xe/oja/tcu. 



SI. 

fl&io), to push ; (R. a>& and oh9f,) has the syllabic augment through- 
out ; thus, imp. m&ovv, f. mcoj and w&tiao), regular from 
both ; 1 f. p. Ma&^ojuat,. 



§118. INDECLINABLE WORDS OR PARTICLES. 

318. — The Indeclinable parts of speech, sometimes denominat- 
ed Particles, are those which suffer no change of form by inflec- 
tion. They are the Adverb (which includes the Interjection), 
the Preposition, and the Conjunction. 

THE ADVERB. 

319. — An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to 
denote some circumstance respecting it. 

Adverbs may be considered in respect of Signification, Deri- 
vation, and Comparison. 



§119.— THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

320. — In respect of signification, adverbs may be arranged in 
Greek as they are in Latin and other languages, under the fol 
lowing heads : 

1. Adverbs of Place ; comprehending those which signify, 

1st. Rest in a place. These generally end in &t, <n, ov, r p or, 
%ov, %i] ; as, ajQod-i, in the field. 

2d. Motion from a place. These generally end in &sv or &e 
as, ayoo&w, from the field. 

3d. Motion to a pla,ce. These generally end in ds, as, £c; as. 
oi'/QOvds, to the field. 324-6. 

4th. Motion through or by a place. These are generally femi- 
nine adjectives in the dative singular, having 6dq> "under- 
stood ; as, ally, by another way. 



§119. 



SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 



187 



2. Adverbs of Time; as, vvv, now ; tote, then; noTt, some- 
times, &o. 

3. Adverbs of Quantity; nooor, how much; noXv, much; 
ollyov, a little, <kc. 

4. Adverbs of Quality; these end in o^-; sometimes in a and 
r- (which are properly datives of the first declension); also m 
//, i, et, dor, 8tjp, an, and £. 

o. Adverbs of Manner ; (viz. of action or condition,) including 
those which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, granting, 
forbidding, interrogation, doubt, <fcc. 

6. Adverbs of Relation ; or such as express circumstances of 
comparison, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation, &c. 

V. Adverbs of Exclamation ; in other languages usually de- 
nominated Interjections. (See 321, Obs. 2.) 

321. — observations. 

Obs. 1. Some adverbs have such an affinity, that, beginning 
with a vowel, they are indefinites ; with n, interrogatives • 
with x, redditives, or responsives, as follows : 



INDEFINITE. 

r <- ( which wan. 

TJ- 07r '"] by what means. 
OTf, onoTty ijvixa, u:h<>>. 

bfrsv, orroftw. whence, 
tr, or O'Vt, where. 
orroj', how much. 
olor, after what nanncr 
oadxtq, how often. 



INTERROGATIVE. 

{ which wayf 
'' 1 by what ?/?'" 
nort, n tjvixa, wht 

jzoQ-tv, whence ( 
nor, or noOi,, wht 
nocsov, how much? [nert 
71 olor, after what man- 
noadxi^, how oft' 



REDDITIYE. 



rf t 6f or ( th\ 

tki'tij, ( by 



is way, or 
this means. 



TOTt, TIJJ'tXrt, tr t vi~ 

y.at'Ta, then. 
roOtv, thence. 
toOi,, th'VC. 

toctov, so much. [ner. 
to Tor, after that man- 
TOffotKM,-, 90 often. 



Obs. 2. Under adverbs in Greek are classed those particles of 
exclamation which express some sudden emotion of the mind, and 
are, in the grammars of most other languages, denominated In- 
terjections. The most common of these are the following, which 

express — 

Rejoicing ; as, tow, Ico. Condemning ; as, a, qsv. 

Grieving ; as, lov, to, and co. Admiring ; as, oj, fia[}ai, nan ecu 

Laughing ; as, «, a. Deriding; as, lov, o3, o. 
Bewailing ; as, ai, 6i la, ototoi. Calling ; as, <n. 

Wishing ; as, si, tide. Unjoining silence ; as, JJ, r\. 

Rejecting; as, an aye. Threatening; as, o vai. 

Praising ; as, tin, tvye. Raging ; as, tvol. 






188 FORMATION OF ADVERBS. §120 



§ 120. THE FORMATION AND DERIVATION OF 
ADVERBS. 

322. — A few adverbs in Greek are primitives; as, w, now ; 
Xafiaiy on the ground ; %&tg, yesterday. 

But the greater part are derivatives, and are of two classes. 

323. — I. The first class of derivatives consists of such words as 
are not strictly speaking adverbs, but are so denominated from 
being sometimes used in an adverbial sense, either by virtue of 
their signification, or by ellipsis for an adverbial phrase ; of these 
the following are examples : 

1. The accusative of neuter adjectives ; as, notitov, to tzqoS- 

tov ; TiQata, ta tzqcozcc, first ; rcc pahata, chiefly ; 6$v, 
sharply. 

2. The oblique cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, 
Gen. bfioVf together ; from 6[i6g, united. 

ovdafiov, never ; from ovdctfiog, no one. 
Dat. Kvxfop, around (i. e. in a circle) ; from xvxlog, a circle. 

tartly swiftly, with swiftness ; from tayog, swiftness. 
Ace. aoxyv and ctQ^ag (sup. xazd), from the beginning ; 
from aQXi'j, the beginning. 

8ixi]v, as, like ; from dixv, manner. 

3. Verbs are sometimes used as adverbs ; thus, 
The imperative ; as, ays, i'&i, t'de, &c. 

The 2d aorist active; as, oyelov, cocpeXov ; from oyeikeo. 
The present optative of eifii; viz. shv. 

Obs. 1. To these may be added — 

1st. Nouns compounded with prepositions ; as, ixnodcor, 

out of the way. 
2d. Prepositions united together ; as, nagex, abroad. 
3d. Prepositions joined with adverbs ; as, tneiTa, then. 

324. — II. The second class of derivatives consists of such 
words as have undergone a change of form, and are used only in 
an adverbial sense. These are so numerous and varied in form 
and derivation, that a perfect classification cannot be given. The 
following, as being the most important, may be noticed ; viz. 

1. Adverbs in cog, express a circumstance of quality or man- 
ner, and are for the most part formed from adjectives by chang- 
ing og of the nominative or genitive into mg ; as, qO.ag from qp/- 
Xog ; ccocpQovoog from ffoaqpocov, gen. cojcfporog. 



§121. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 189 

2. Adverbs in t, or ei, express a circumstance of manner, and 
are generally formed from nouns ; as, draiftei, without bloodshed ; 
avzo^eiQij with one's own hand. 

3. Adverbs in ti and zei are formed from the verbal adjec- 
tives in tog and ttog ; thus, ovofiuazi, by name ; avidgoori, with- 
out sweating. So also those in dqv (the characteristic of the 
verb being changed, when necessary, according to the laws of 
Euphony, § 6, 2) ; thus, from §azog is formed ftddrp>, by steps 
(from fidm) ; from avXkijnTog, ovih'^S^r, collectively ; from 
xgvmog, XQvftdtjp, secretly, <fcc. Sometimes the termination ddqv 
is added ; as, otzoquS^i', scattered. 

4. Adverbs in ion come from verbs in /£co, derived from 
nouns signifying a nation, party, or class, and signify after tlie 
manner, language, <fcc. of such nation, <fcc. ; as, 'ElXynati, after 
the manner of the Greeks ; drdQaTzoSiOTi, after the manner of 
men. 

5. Adverbs in dov and ?;dov are for the most part derived 
from nouns, and relate chiefly to external form and character ; 
as, aythfior, in herds ; fiornvdor, resembling grapes. 

Note. If derived from verbal adjectives, they agree in signification 
with those in dt t v ; as, avctqardov, openly. 

6. Adverbs d ertain relations of place, are formed by 
the addition of certain syllables to the words from which they 
are derived; viz. In a j>i I by the terminations ft, 
at, ov, t], Of, %ov, and /// ; from a place, by Otv or #c; and to a 
placet by o>, at, and c«. 

325. — Exc. Adverbs of place, derived from prepositions, ex- 
ilic relations of in a place and to a place by the termina- 
tion (o ; thus, 

In a place. To a place. From a place. 

arm, above, dico, upwards. dvcaxttv, from above (from dvd). 

xdzco, below, xdzco, downwards, xdzcoxtei; from below ( " xazd). 



326.— §121. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives compared by reQog and 
razog, are compared by changing og of these terminations into 
tog; as, 

troycog aoqeozt'ocog aoepcozdzcog from cocpog 

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives, compared by *W and 

9* 



190 INSEPARABLE ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. -§122. 

iGtog, commonly take the neuter singular of the comparative, 
and the neuter plural of the superlative for their comparative and 
superlative ; thus, 

ai6%QGig aifi'fiov ai<5%i6ra from al6%o6g 

Note 1. This mode of comparison is also used, though more rarely, 
for those derived from adjectives compared by nooq and raxoq ; as, 

ffoqiox; aoq)o')tfQOV aoqio'nara 

Note 2. The accusative neuter of adjectives, both singular and plu- 
ral, is sometimes used adverbially in all the degrees. To the superla 
tive degree, the article is frequently prefixed ; as, to nknarov (sup. 
Hard). 

3. Adverbs in co, formed from prepositions, are compared by 
adding rsgco and zdtco ; as, dvco, dvajxsQO), dvcozdzco. So also 
prepositions in the sense of adverbs ; as, dnb, ancozeQCQ. 

Note. Some other adverbs imitate this mode of comparison; as, 
eyyvq, iyyvrioo), iyyvrdro); yet as often otherwise; thus, comparative 
iyyvrtfjov, and tyytov, superlative 'iyytara. 



§ 122. INSEPARABLE ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. 

327. — Certain particles, never used by themselves, but pre- 
fixed to words by composition, affect the signification of the 
words with which they are compounded, as follows : 

1. The particle d (which becomes dv before a vowel) has 
three different significations : 

1st. It marks privation (from avev, without) ; as, drvdoog, 

without water. 
2d. It denotes increase (from dyav, much) ; as, a^vXog, 

much wooded. 
3d. It denotes union (from dfia, together) ; as, aXoxog, a 

consort. 

2. Jtgif SQL, fiov, ftoi, dd, £a, Id, XI, and sometimes vtj and re, 
increase the signification ; as, dtjlog, manifest ; doidqlog, very 
manifest. &c. 

3. A r ?j and vs generally express privation or negation ; as, 
vfjmog, an infant, from v >/ and stzco, I speak ; but 

Exc. Ni) sometimes increases the signification; as, r/j/vrog, 
that flows in a full stream, from vtj and %i>(o. 

4. Avg expresses difficulty, trouble, or misfortune ; as, 5wr 
'[iwrjg t malevolent ; dvczv%e(Q, I am unhappy. 



§ 124 PREPOSITIONS. 191 

Note The contrary jf St'iq is ev (which is also found by itself). It 
signifies well or with facility ; as, ivptevfe benevolent; umyioy, I am 
happy. 



§123. THE PREPOSITIONS. 

328. — A Preposition is a word which shows 
the relation between a noun or pronoun following 
it, and some other word in the sentence. 

1. The primary use of prepositions seems to have been, to in- 
dicate the relation of one thing to another in respect of place. 
From this, by a natural and easy analogy, they are used to ex- 
press similar relations in respect of time. 

2. From their primary and more common use, to express 
certain relations of place and time, they are also used by analogy 
and figure, to express various other connections and relations 
among objects, in all of which, however, the primary and original 
use of the word may easily be traced. 

3. All propositions ending with a vowel, except diiyl, 7isqi\ 
and 7tq6, reject the final vowel when compounded with, or stand- 
ing before, a word beginning with a vowel ; ujicpi generally re 
tains i y but there are many exceptions. It la always rejected be- 
fore the augment 8. lino before t sometimes combines with it 
by contraction ; thus, nno tnyov becomes npovoyov. 222, Obs. 2. 

4. There are eighteen propositions, properly so called, in the 
Greek language ;' of these 

Four govern the Genitive only, viz. j&vrl, dno, Ix or f|, ttqo. 
Two govern the Dative only, '/2r, aw. 

Two govern the Accusative only, Eig or ig, and ava. 
Four govern the Gen. and Ace. /tid y xard, ^era, vntq. 
Six govern the Gen., Dat., & Ace. Jjftq;i, ntol, im, nagd, 

Troog, and vno. 



329.— § 124. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 
1. J4iiq.L the Genitive. Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification; round, round about, on both sides. 

With the Genitive; round, round about ; at the same time proceed- 
ing or originating from; of or concerning, upon, in addition to, for th* 
take of, for the love of. 



Kmsrs-!^^-^- - - 



192 PREPOSITIONS. § 124. 

"With the Dative ; round, with the idea of rest and continuance ; of 
or concerning, among, after or near, upon, for, i. e. in defence of; for, i. e. 
on account of; with. 

With the Accusative ; round, with the idea of tendency or approxi- 
mation to ; near, of, concerning, or belonging to. See also § 134, 13. 

In Composition ; about, round about. 

2. Jiva y the Accusative. In poetry, sometimes the Dative. 

Primary Signification; motion upwards, from below to above, op- 
posed to xccra. 

With the Accusative; over, up along, through, during, among, with, 
in ; in computation, up ; viz. from a point below. 

With the Dative ; upon, on, in, with the idea of elevation and rest. 

In Composition ; motion upwards, repetition, increase, back again. 

3. Jivti, the Genitive. 

Primary Meaning ; in front of, in a state of rest ; set over against, 
i. e. by way of exchange, comparison, equivalence, or preference. Hence, 

With the Genitive ; for, i. e. equivalent ; before, in preference ; in- 
stead of, against, equal to, for, in consideration of ; upon. 

In Composition; equality, substitution, reciprocity, comparison, op- 
position. 

4. Andy the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; removal from, viz. from contact with ; oppo- 
site of nq 6q. 

With the Genitive ; from, on, after (from the time of), against, by 
means of with, upon, of, i. e. proceeding from ; on account of, for, of, 
i. e. belonging to; e. g. ol ano, those belonging to, viz. the Council, Ple- 
beians, Stoics, <fcc. 

In Composition ; departure, separation, negation, privation, augmen- 
tation. 

5. did, the Genitive or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; through, motion through. 

With the Genitive ; 1. place, through ; 2. time, through, through- 
out, during ; with regard to the space or time passed through, at, in ; 
with numerals, every; as, dvd ntvti, every five; 3. cause, by means of, 
with, viz. as an instrument. 

With the Accusative ; by, by means of, during ; as the end, occasion, 
or cause ; for, on account of, e. g. navrd §C avtov lyivfro, all things were 
made by him ; navra dt' avrov iyivfto, all things were made for him. 

In Composition ; separation, division, arrangement, passage through, 
reciprocation, opposition, or competition, perseverance. 

6. Eig or ig, the Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; to, into ; motion from without to within; the 
opposite of ex. 

With the Accusative; to, into, toward, against, among, before, con- 
cerning, in respect of in. till, until, for ; with numerals, about, up to. 



§ 124. PREPOSITIONS. 193 

It forms distributives; as, tiq era, one by one ; it is used adverbially, 
tiq anal, once ; tiq diql twice. 

In Composition ; into. 

Note. When tiq or iq stands before a genitive, an accusative is un- 
derstood. 

7. 'Ex (before a vowel 'isj), the Genitive. 

Primary Signification; from, out, out of, motion from within to 
without ; opposite of tiq. 

With the Genitive it denotes motion from, causation, change of state, 
rendered of, i. e. made of; of viz. the number ; out of, by, with, accord- 
ing to, since. 

In Composition ; out of, it denotes division or separation, pre-emi- 
nence, completion or success, intensity. 

8. 'Ev, the Dative. 

Primary Signification; in, with the idea of rest and being con- 
tained within. 

With the Dative; within, during, among, before, in the power of, by, 
viz. by means of; in the case of, with, into. 

In Composition ; in or among. 

9. 'Em, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primart Signification ; on or upon, with motion or rest 

With the Genitive ; on, upon, at, in, or near ; during, through, under, 
in the time of; after, with, by. 

With the Dative ; upon, i. e. close and continuing upon, in the power 
of i. e. resting upon; on condition, during, besides, L e. in addition to; 
for, i. e. in order to ; after, with, against, along, among, at, by, over ; 
viz. in authority. 

With the Accusative; on or -upon, with the idea of tendency or ap- 
proach towards; to, towards, under, so as to be dependent upon; in, 
over, during, against ; viz. motion towards with hostile intent 

In Composition ; addition, increase, reciprocity, succession. 

10. Kara, the Genitive or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; direction from above to below, down along 
(parallel); down to, upon, or at (perpendicular); down through (trans- 
verse) ; opposite of ctvd. 

With the Genitive; down from, viz. originating or proceeding down 
from, directed down by; along, on, through, downwards; under, upon, 
at, as a mark; before, respecting, by, viz. in swearing; against, among. 

With the Accusative ; down (not from, but) parallel to, down along, 
or to ; through, according to, in respect of ; in, on, by, near to, at, op- 
posite, or before, during. Adverbially, xarn /m,y.o6v, by degrees. 

In Composition ; down, opposition, intensity. 

11. fllerd, the Genitive, Dative (with the Poets), or the Accusa- 
tive. 
Primary Signification ; with, together with, not as a part of, or one 
with ; expressing a connection less close than avv. 



194 PREPOSITIONS. § 121. 

With the Genitive ; with, together with, by means of, viz. as con- 
nected with and depending upon ; according to, and, i. e. in conjunction 
with, as an agent, or object; with, i. e. against; with, i. e. for, on the side 
of; among. 

"With the Accusative ; after, i. e. following close or near to, in re- 
spect to space or time; next to, next after, to, towards, for, or after, with 
a view to bring ; between, in, among. 

With the Dative; by the poets only, in, with, among. 

In Composition; participation, change, reciprocity. 

12. Ilaqa, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification, by the side of; it denotes motion from, close 
to, or towards an object, according to the case with which it is joined. 

With the Genitive ; from, i. e. from beside ; of, proceeding from ; 
by, with, near, from among, above, or in comparison with. 

With the Dative ; at, with, near, among, with the idea of continu- 
ance. 

With the Accusative ; to, beyond, beside, towards, i. e. to the side of ; 
through along, against, in comparison with. 

In Composition ; it retains its general meaning ; also defect 

13. IIeqi, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification; round, round about, nearly the same with 
auyl, but in a sense less close: a^iyl means on both sides; moi, on all 
sides. 

With the Genitive; round, round about, with the idea of origin 
or cause ; about, i. e. of, or concerning ; with, for, viz. in defence of ; 
above or before, denoting pre-eminence or superiority. 

With the Dative ; round, round about, with rest or continuance ; 
for, i. e. concerning, on account of; from. 

With the Accusative ; round, or about, with tendency or approach 
to; concerning or towards, about, i. e. near to, advancing towards ; about, 
i. e. with regard to ; in, of, against. 

In Composition; round about, also denoting increase, abundance. 

14. IIqo, the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; before, in respect of place or time, but with- 
out the idea of opposition or comparison which belongs to dvri. 

With the Genitive; before, in the presence of; at the command of, 
through, denoting cause or origin; for, in defence of; for, for the ad- 
vantage of; before, denoting preference. 

Tn Composition ; before ; with verbs of motion, forth, forward. 

15. IlQog, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; transition or passage, the relative direction 
. being indicated by the case. 

With the Genitive ; from, i. e. transition from ; from, by, denoting 
the agent; belonging 10 or the property of ; of, proceeding from; on 
ike side of: by, in oaths and supplications; before, to, so as to be pro- 
tected by. 



§ 124. PREPOSITIONS. 195 

Wrra the Dative; close to, near, and continuing ; besides, in addition 
to, before, occupied or busy with. 

With the Accusative; to or towards, against, according to, in conse- 
quence of, on account of, with, in comparison of. 

In Composition ; motion to, addition, against, close to. 

16. Zvv, the Dative. 

Primary Signification ; with, closely connected with another, so as 
in some sense to form one with it ; see /utrti. 

With the Dative ; with, together with, according to, besides, with the 
assistance of at, during, to, on the side of 

In Composition ; concurrence in action, association, combination, col- 
lection, completion or fulfilment, collision, 'mtcnsity. 

17. 'TniQ, the Genitive or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; over or above, viz. in respect of place, and 
hence figuratively, over, in respect of power, authority, protection. 

With the Genitive ; above, in a state of rest ; over, in a state of mo- 
tion; for, i. e. in defence of; for, viz. in the place of; for, on account 
of; bu, for tlie sake of of concerning, in order to. 

With the Accusative; over beyond, above or beyond, above, L e. more 
than ; against. 

In Composition; it retains its primary signification, also sometimes 
it augments. 

18. 'Tno, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; wndtr, modified by its case. 

With tiik GrBMiTlVB ; place: from In love, from under, out of; hV- 
under, generally with the idee of protection, subjection, or the object of 
influence proceeding from ; also, by, with, i. e. under the direction of; 
b'j means of, for, i. e. under the influence of. 

With the Dative; simply under, completely under and continuing, 

A\ ran ti;k Ac isative; under, viz. moving and proceeding under or 
coming up to the under part of a thing; to, behind, about, on the eve of 

In Composition; it retains its primary signification. Sometimes it 
denotes diminution, privacy, beginning. 

330. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The preposition, as its name imports, usually stands before the 
word which it governs. When it comes after it, asit sometimes does, 
this is indicated by the change of the accent from the last syllable to 
the first. 

2. In composition, with a word beginning with a vowel, and gen- 
erally when standing before such a word, the final vowel of the prepo- 
sition is dropped, and, if the next preceding letter be a consonant, it is 
subject to the changes required by the laws of euphony; thus, an'o 
eaiTod must be written ct<p' tavrov. IJfPi, however, never drops its 
final vowel, and in never changes its final letter except before a voweL 
when it is changed into i$. 



196 CONJUNCTIONS. § 125. 

3. The preposition alone, with the accent thrown back to the first 
syllable, is sometimes used fur certain compounds, of which it forms a 
part; thus, evt.is used for Evtart,, it is lawful; niqv for mqliaxi, it is 
superfluous ; uvol for avaartj&t, arise ; ndqa for naqiOXL, he is present. 



§125. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

331. — A Conjunction is a word which con- 
nects words or sentences. 

332. — Conjunctions, according to their different meanings, 
are divided into different classes, of which the following may lx 
noticed; viz. 

1. Connective ; as, xai, re, and ; in poetry, rfid, idd, jjfiiv, and , 

xcu dd, also, &c. 

2. Disjunctive ; as, ?], tjzoi ; in poetry, ?js ; and sometimes ijyovv, 

tjtzov, or. 

3. Concessive ; as, xdv, xaineg, el xai, although. 

4. Adversative ; as, alXa, dd, drag, but ; yd, at least ; fidv, aX- 

Xa \idv, but, truly, indeed ; ^judvioi, yet, &c. 

5. Causal, . . . which assign a reason for something previously 

said; as, ydg,for ; iva, ozi, o7i(og, oyga, that ; wg, 
mete, that, so that ; ovvsxa (in poetry), because ; 
siTTEQ, since indeed ; etiei, since, after that. 

6. Conclusive, or such as are used in drawing a conclusion, or 

inference from something previously said ; as, 
dga, ovv, therefore ; dw, dionsg, wherefore ; b*/j, 
then, truly ; tolvvv, vv or w, therefore ; Toiya- 
govv (emphatic), wherefore ; ovxovv, not there- 
fore. 

7. Conditional ; as, el, dv, lav, yv, in poetry, xd or xdv, at, aixs, 

if ; sitteq, if indeed. 

8. JEJxpletive ; as, yd, ndg, tot, gd, &dv, vv, nov, ttcq, dg, &c. 

ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 

The following remarks on the signification and use of certain 
adverbial and conjunctive particles, will be useful for reference. 
For more ample information on this subject, the advanced stu- 
dent is referred to the work of Hoogeveen on the Greek Par- 
ticles, an abridged translation of which has been published by 
the Rev. John Seager, B. A. 



§ 125. CONJUNCTIONS. 197 



333. XAAA. 

1. ^AXXd is adversative, and commonly answers to the English but. 
It is sometimes used ellipticaily, to indicate confidence or readiness, and 
may be rendered 'well, then;' therefore. Thus, a/A tv ia&i., ©r* tin 
toT>&' ovxotq, Well, then, know that this will be so, i. e. ovx oy.vr.ao), a/./.', 
<fec. I will not be unwilling, but, on the contrary, know that this will be so. 

2. *Au.d yao. Thus combined ydo introduces a reason for the op- 
position expressed by ct/./ot ; as, d/./a yao Koiovra hvaata, 7tavo~«) ror? 
7iaQfo~Tonaq j.oyovq, But I will stop the present discourse, for I see Crcon 
coming. Sometimes, however, the refereuce is more latent, and a clause 
is to be supplied from what precedes ; thus, Plato, a/J.a ydo iv ad<>t< 
AixTjv dwaoutv, where there must be supplied from the preceding sen- 
tence, oi'<x d^rjuvot, <x7ia).).aloutVy But we shall not escape unpunished, FOB 
we shall ren/Jer satisfaction in Hades. Sometimes the reference is to a 
succeeding clause, and sometimes to some general remark which the 
connection and sense of the passage will readily suggest, such as, But 
this is not surprising, for ; But this is not impossible, for ; Afe 

3. jiila yt restricts with emphasis that which is general to some- 
thing more special; as, aXX' ovx dv dygoLr.oK; yt, oio/iat, s.oi Solatia v. 
But at least they would not, I think, revile us in a rude manntr. 

4. 'jiXX* oiv yt. When these particles are combined, they usually 
intimate that along with the opposition expressed by alia, a conse- 
quence of what has preceded is also expressed; thus, aJU' ei>r rovrov 
yt tov /(tovov tjrxov dtjdtji; taoftiu. Ykt I will IOB mis BXASOB now AT 
LEAST be less disagreeable. 

5. 'Alkd joined with oiai strengthens the negative; as, a.).).' oide 
7itn>o\o~oacti, Nay, I will not even try. In Mich sentences oi' ^ovuv oi may 
be .supplied, equivalent to, I will not only not do it, but I will not even 
try. 

6. './/A/a is strengthened by adding rot; as, aAA* ydv rot, tjv avs.oq 
nctqri, Why, that is a pleasant thing enough, if, <fcc 

334.— XN (Poet. KE or KEN). 

v Av (Poetice x* or %tv) according to Professor Dunbar, is derived from 
dot, the same as ido), to give, grant, or allow ; and that the primary 
meaning of the particle thus derived is granted or allowed, which can be 
readily traced in all the variety of expression in which it is employed. 
This particle is used — 

1. In the sense of idv, if, of which, in this sense, it ie probably only 
an abbreviated form. Thus used, it expresses a condition, and may be- 
gin a sentence; as, «v &to<; &iJ.r], if{ffranted) God will. In all its otfier 
applications dv can stand only alter other words in its clause. 

2. It is used with indefinites, adding to them the force of the Latin 
cunque, -soever ; as, oo*tk,- dv, whoever, or whosoever. 

3. It is used most generally to limit the verb to which it belongs, 
and partly or entirely takes from that verb its direct affirmative power. 

With the indicative imperfect, pluperfect, and aorists, it is rendered 
by should, would; should have, would hare, <te. £ 170, 4, and Obs. 1; 
and also to express ability, and rendered by could or could have. It ia 
sometimes joined to the future, and seems to soften the decisiveness of 



198 conjunctions. § 125. 

the statement; as, 6 de *iv YibyoXwatrav ov xtv ix<ouat,, and hs will pee 
haps be angry to whom I go. It is but very seldom found with the in- 
dicative present ; a few instances, however, have been produced from 
Aristophanes and Plutus. 

With the subjunctive it is never joined, unless accompanied with cer- 
tain other words, such as 6q, ovoq, 6ari,q, otcotzqo^, ov, 6ttov, IW, <fcc. 
&c. except when used in the sense of idv as above, 334-1. 

It is used with the optative of all the tenses except the future, as in 
§ 172, Obs. 6, II. 2d, 3d, 4th,. 5th, 6th. 

With the infinitive and participles it gives a contingent significa- 
tion (commonly in the future), which may be resolved by changing the 
verb or participle into the optative with dv ; as, oiovrat dvafid/taflau 
dv, they think that they could retrieve themselves ; tdkia o~t,o)7io>, nokX dv 
t/wv iiniiv, I omit the rest, though I have much to say. 

4. It is used in positive statements with different moods, to give an 
expression of hesitation and modesty to the assertion ; as, ox; dv noi> 
d6r.r[, as it seems (would seem) to me ; ovx dv otda, I (should) hardly 
know. 

5. "Av is frequently repeated, either on account of its standing at a 
great distance from the verb, or, to give emphasis to the condition sug- 
gested by* it ; ardq dv Xiyovuv dv, having stationed myself 

/ would say ; tcox; de y dv xakox; X&you; dv ; how can you, how 

can you say, &c. % 

6. It is sometimes used, to intimate that the verb in the preceding 
clause is to be repeated; as, ft dy tw aoqmrtQoq qiaitjv nvav, rovrot dv 
(sc. q>ai7]v tlvat, aoq>d)tt(Joii), if I thought to be more wise in any thing, it 

WOULD BE IN THIS. 

335.— JlPA—APA. 

1. "Aga, denoting inference or conclusion, always stands after some 
word in its clause ; its proper signification is "of course" "*» the na- 
ture of things" and is commonly rendered therefore, consequently ; it is 
used in the successive steps of a train of reasoning ; as, " If there are 
altars there are also gods;" dM.d fiijv rial /?w/*ot" tlcriv dya xai &foi, 
But there certainly are altars ; therefore there are gods too. It is used 
in making a transition to what follows in the order of time or events, or 
in the progress of thought. With tl or idv it expresses conjecture; as, 
tl dya diivovrav, if indeed (i. e. in the course of things) they can. Some- 
times it serves for an emphatic asseveration as if founded on an infer- 
ence. 

2. The adverb doa is different from this, and is always placed first 
in a clause or sentence. It is merely an interrogative particle like the 
Latin num or utrum ; as, doa y.ardStjXov o /7oiUo/*e3 tiyuv ; Is, then, 
what I wish to say evident ? When a negative answer is expected it 
has generally the particle ^annexed. The Latin nonne is expressed 
by «£>' ov, and sometimes by dya alone. 

336.— rA'p. 

1. rdo,for, always follows other words like the Latin enim, which 
it resembles in signification, and for vhich at the beginning of a sen- 
tence xat ydo, like the Latin etenim, is often used. Its use is to assign 
a reason for what is said. Very often, however, that of which it assigns 



§125. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 199 



the cause is merely implied or hinted at, and must be supplied, to show 
the force of ydo. It will frequently be found to refer to such expres- 
sions understood; as, Yes. No, no wonder, I believe, I cannot, <fcc, as, 
for example, in the answer so common in Pluto, ton ydo ovxta, Yes, or 
eertainly, for so it is. Thus, Homer. Od. 10. 501, Si Ktyxtj, W s - ydo 
rutr/jv odnv i t yiiiovtvoii<\ Oh Circe, (1 cannot go thither,) for who will 
guide vie on this way f From this interrogative use it came sometimes 
to be used, merely to strengthen a question, like the Latin nam in quia- 
nam. 

2. In such expressions as /.ai yao, d/./.d yao, the former particle in 
dicates the omission of something of which ydo assigns a e&nse ; thus, 
xat ydo strictly translated means, and (no wonder,)/or; and (it is na- 
tural,) for ; and the like. For the rendering of d)./.d ydo, see ct/./.a, 
333-2. 

33V.— rtf. 

n (enclitic) is a particle of limitation, and signifies at least, certainly, 
however, indeed, and is used to single out an individual object from a 
number; as, tl uii o/.ov /itgoc; yt, if not the whole at least a part ; iyio 
yt, I indeed\ I at least. In most combinations it can be rendered into 
English only by giving greater emphasis to the word with which it is 
connected. 

338.— Jtf. 

The particle Si, but, is used both to distinguish and oppose, and 
always stands after one or more words in a clause. It often serves, 
however, merely to mark transition from one proposition to another; 
and, in general, every proposition which has no other conjunction at 
its commencement, takes this Si, whether really opposed to the prece- 
ding or imt. When so used, it ma}' be rendered by and, for, or any 
other word "which the nature of the connection may require; or it may 
often remain untranslated. Its principal use, however, is in connection 
with /<tV, which see. 

339.— AH. 

Ar\, a particle of affirmation, signifies truly, really, without doubt. 
It is used in affirmative answers; as, Sqlav or'., it is certainly manifest. 
It is used ironically, especially after ox;; and after relative and compar- 
ative words it is usually emphatical. With nov joined to it (dtJ7zov), it 
signifies certainly, viz., and sometimes, perhaps. It differs from fojv and 
yi, also affirmative words, in this, that dy strongly asserts a thing as 
already established: uijv goes on to press the assertion without relax- 
ing as to what baa preceded ; while ye asserts with limitation, yielding 
as to the past, or other things, but insi-tiug upon this. 

2. zlt], from tjdq, as an adverb, signifies now ; joined with r7r, this 
wry moment ; as, vvv tjdi] ua^rrtsov, we must fight this very moment. 
With verbs in the preterite, it denotes just now. As a conjunction, it is 
used, 1. In exhorting; as, Myt dij, eoms now, read; 2. In qi estions, it 
indicates the earnestness of the speaker, ami his desire of an immediate 
answer; as, rd nola dt) ravra ; what now are these? 3. In expressing 
admiration when joined with noxi ; as, rt d^nort %wtw, why now 



200 CONJUNCTIONS. §125. 

these ; 4. In commencing a subject; as, Side dq cxenouiev avro, now let 
us consider it in this way ; 5. In marking the successive stages of thought 
as they rise one above another. In each of these, it signifies now truly, 
until at the last it signifies finally. 

340.— KAI' and T&. 

Kai and re have the same significations in reference to each other 
as the Latin et and que. Both connect single ideas, and the entire parts 
of a sentence. With the older poets, re is more common than in the 
Attic prose writers, and it is commonly put not merely once between 
the connected parts, but joined to each of them ; as, Tzarijo avdoow re 
■Oewv re, the father of both gods and men. "When re precedes xai in sep- 
arate clauses, the former signifies not only ; the latter, but also; re xai, 
and also, connect more closely than simple xai; xai — xai, both — and; 
as well — as; aXXwq re xai, especially, i. e. (both in other respects) and 
also, particularly also. 

341.— MA and NH'. 

Ma and vr\ are particles of obtestation, and always govern the ac- 
cusative of the object; vij is always affirmative; fia, when alone, is 
negative, but is nevertheless attached both to affirmative and negative 
obtestations ; as, vat /u,d Aia, and ov pa Aia. 

342.— MtfiVand A£ . 

Mev and <?« are two particles referring to each other ; they are used 
to distinguish, and at the same time to connect, the different"clauses of 
a sentence together. Thus used, ju,£v is generally placed in the first 
clause of a sentence, and <5e in each of the succeeding ones. Hence, 
whenever we find a£v in the first member of a sentence, the thought 
necessarily turns to an opposite member with §L Sometimes, however, 
after juiv the expected de does not actually follow ; i. e. when the op- 
position is so clear that di is not necessary to point it out, or when 
some other word, such as dXX.d, ardo, Ac, supplies its place. In like 
manner <5e is often used without being preceded by (xiv, referring to 
something conceived in the mind but not expressed ; or, without such 
reference, it is used, simply to connect the parts of a sentence less 
closely than by (x&v—di, or other conjunctions. In opposition they are 
commonly rendered indeed — but. See SL 

The distributive use of (xh and §k with the article, relative pronoun, 
&c. will be noticed §§ 133, 3, & 134, 19. 

343.— OtN and OfKOTN. 

1. Ovv, wherefore, is used, 1. In drawing an ultimate conclusion 
in the view of all that has been said before ; in this it differs from dqa, 
which is used in successive steps in the process of reasoning. 2. It com- 
mences a chapter or paragraph, with some reference to what has pre- 
ceded. 3. It continues or resumes a subject, after a digression. 4. It 
introduces a transition to some new subject; and lastly, it has an affirm- 
ative force, particularly in replies; as, yiyverai, ovv ovrox;, it is certainly 
80 ; hence the compounds, 



§ 125. conjunctions. 201 

2. Oi'xoT'v and uiov, for urj ovv. The former is properly a negative 
inference ; as, "it is not therefore ; " though sometimes it loses its nega- 
tive character, and denotes "therefore;" uorv is used interrogatively, 
"is it not therefore?" 

3U.—IIEP. 

TIio (enclitic) is nearly allied to yi, and is used to express the idea 
with more emphasis than it would have without it. This is indicated 
in English merely by a greater emphasis of the word, or by the words 
very, ever, and the like. Joined with a participle, it is commonly ren- 
dered although, how much so ever ; with a relative, it adds the force of 
the Latin cunque, or the English ever ; thus, unto, qucecungue, whatever, 
oantQ, quicunque, whoever, <fec. ; a*, olthq My **, whatever he does say; 
aya&oi; nto iutv, excellent though thou art ; i^nn* uyiv,just as he was. 

345.— no f. 

1. FIoTi is a particle interrogative, of place, and signifies 1. where? 
2. whither? As an enclitic it signifies motion to a place; as, anti'Sui 
nov, I am hastening to some place, somewhither, and also indicates place 
indefinitely, anywhere ; hence it is joined with adverbs of place ; as, ixti 
di not', somewhere there-abouts. 

2. From the indetiniteness of its signification arises its conjectural 
use, to express a thing with a degree of uncertainty and caution, ex- 
pressed in English by probably, perhaps, if 1 mist<ik> not, tire, and hence 
is used in eliciting and asking consent ; as, avvoLO&a nov xou amoq ort, 
<fcc. You yourself as well as I, know, if I mistake not, or doubtless, that, 
Ac., where an affirmative reply ifl endently expected 11. 'nee also its 
use as a diminutive, to qualify what might otherwise seem t<>o positive 
or peremptory. Thus used it may he rendered by pretty marly, in my 
opinion, perhaps, Ac. This particle, though often os< d, is eerer redun- 
dant; ol> dt t noil, for example, is, no indeed, as J think ; not truly, in my 
opinion. 

346.-77^2'. 

1. This particle with the circumflex is interrogative and signifies 
how? as, ttos* o«'x aiioq taxi rovrov ; how can he but be worthy of this ? 
Joined with ydo they constitute an emphatic negative, ttoh; ycty nou^ao ; 
for how shall I do it? i. e. I will not do it at all. So also y.ui nox; 
OK>)7to>; I cannot be silent ; literally, and how am I to be silent? 

2. As an enclitic ntoq signifies some hoic, in some degree, <fcc. as, aXXoic, 
ruoc, in some other way ; todi no)q, somehow thus ; <fca 

347.— J^. 

This particle is extensively employed, and with a great variety of 
usage; as, 1. It is used for 'iva, to denote a purpose; as, o>q dti$o)ufv, 
in order that we may shew ; 2. for b'rt with the meaning of that ; as, 
Myovrtq ok ixtivoq, <fcc, saying that he, <fcc. ; 3. More commonly it signi 
fies as, expressing similitude; as, wq JojUo?, as a slave; "He taught 
them — uc ilovaiav e/ow, as one having authority." 4. With the acute 
accent, and not before an enclitic, nor after a word on which it depends, 



202 conjunctions. § 125. 

it has the sense of o"ixe»q, thus ; as, wc dnoiv, having spohen thus. 5. In 
exclamations it has the sense of how ; as, oJg o~e juaxaoi^o/u-fv, how happy 
we deem you ! hence its use with the optative in the sense of the Latin 
utinam ; as, w? /*' bq>iX' 'Exxoyp xxetvav: Would that Hector had slain 
me ! literally, how Hector ought to have slain me ! 6. Before superlative 
adjectives and adverbs, like oxt>, it strengthens the meaning ; as, uk t«- 
yiaxa, as quickly as possible. Allied to this, is its power as a strength- 
ening particle, with the positive degree, in such expressions ; as, ox; 
afal&w;, truly, really. 7. It is used for the purpose of limiting proposi-' 
tions with the infinitive; as, ok; iintlv, so to speak; o>q tlxdffcu, as far 
as one may conjecture ; and also in the same sense it is used before 
whole clauses and propositions ; as, mq Inl xo nolv, for the most part ; 
oyq nobq to [liyt&oq xriq noXfotq, in proportion to the size of the city. 8. 
As a particle of time, it signifies when, sometimes while ; as, ok, de r^.&f, 
but when he came. 9. With numerals it signifies about ; as, o>q xqict tj 
xexxaoa axaftia,, about three or four stadia. 10. With particles in the 
genitive absolute, and also in the dative or accusative, it is rendered as, 
since, because, inasmuch as, as if; and the participle is then rendered by 
the indicative; as, otq xavxtjq Trjq xo>pctq e/i'po)xctxr;q ovaqq, because this 
place was the most secure. 11. It is often put by the Attics for the pre- 
position tlq, nobq, or tni ; as, o)q ijui, towards me ; ok; xbv fiuauia, to 
the king. 

f^f For the negative particles ov and /4tj, with their combinations 
and compounds, see § 166. 

348. — Obs. Though it is, in many cases, difficult to give a distinct 
translation of some of the Greek particles, or even always to feel their 
force, yet they ought never to be regarded as mere expletives. In all 
languages there are particles which are often employed chiefly for the 
sake of completeness, or in order to produce a well-sounding fulness, 
yet never without their own peculiar sense ; and though it is often dif- 
ficult to define what that sense is, yet every one feels that the expres- 
sion is incomplete without them. So it is also in the Greek language. 
The full and original meaning of many of those particles has become 
partially lost, and they now give to the discourse only a slight colour- 
ing which we cannot properly feel except after long acquaintance and 
practice. For a more full elucidation of the force and use of these par- 
ticles, we refer the reader to the elaborate work of Hoogeveen on the 
Greek Particles. 



126. SYNTAX. 203 



PART III. 



§126. SYNTAX. 

349. — Syntax is that part of grammar which 
treats of the proper arrangement and connection 
of words in a sentence. 

350. — A Sentence is such an assemblage of words us makes 
complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

351. — A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 

but not making complet« is, In truth, in a wont. 

352. — 9 are of two kinds, Simple and GompoUM 

353. — A Simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; 

M, lAft M short. 

354. --A Compound sentence contains two <»r more simple 
sentences conn . which u short, should 

be well employed. 

355. — Every simple senten i of two parts, the tubjeci 

and the prtdicate. 

356. — The subject is that of which something is affirmed. It 
is either in the nominative case before ■ finite verb, or in the 
nominative or accusative before the infinitive. 

357. — The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 
It consists of two parts, the attribute and copula. A verb which 
includes both, is called an attributive verb ; as, "John read* 
verb which only connects the attribute expressed l>v another word, 
with the subject, is called a copulative verb ; as, •• John is reading." 

358. — Both subject and predicate may be attended by other 

words called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modify their 
meaning; as, u Too eager a pursuit of wealth often ends in pov- 
erty dud misery" 

359. — When a compound sentence Is bo framed that the mean 
ing is suspended till the whole is finished, it is called a period. 



204 ±»ARTS OF SYNTAX. § 127, 128. 



360.— §127. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative, 
or subject expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, 
must have a substantive expressed or understood with which it 
agrees. 

3. Every relative must have an antecedent, or word to which 
it refers, and with which it agrees. 

4. Every subject nominative has its own verb expressed or 
understood. 

5. Every verb (except in the infinitive and participles) has its 
own subject or nominative expressed or understood. 

6. Every oblique case is governed by some word expressed 
or understood in the sentence of which it forms a part ; or it is 
used, without government, to express certain circumstances ; as 
follows : 

1) The genitive is governed by a noun, a verb, & preposition, 
oi an adverb ; or it is placed as the case absolute with the parti- 
ciple. 

2) The dative is governed by adjectives, verbs, and preposi- 
tions. It also expresses the cause, manner, or instrument. 

3) The accusative is governed by a transitive active verb or 
preposition. 

4) The vocative either stands alone, or is governed by an 
interjection. 

5) The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an adjective, or 
adverbial particle. 



§ 128.— PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

361. — The parts of Syntax are commonly reck- 
oned two, Concord and Government. 

362. — Concoed is the agreement of one word 
with another in gender, number, case, or person. 

363. — Government is that power which one 
word has in determining the mood, tense, or case 
of another word. 



§ 129. SUBSTANTIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVE. 205 

I. CONCOKD. 

364. — Concord is fourfold, viz. : 

1. Of a substantive with a substantive. 

2. Of an adjective with a substantive. 

3. Of a relative with its antecedent. ' 

4. Of a verb with its nominative, or subject. 



§129. A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

365. — Rule I. Substantives denoting the same 
person or thing agree in case ; as, 

TIavXog anoarolog, Paul, an apostle. 

jLcoxodzqg 6 cpiXoGoyogt Socrates, tlte philosopher. 
Qecp xQiTrj, To God, the judge. 

366 — Substantives thus used are said to be in apposition. The 
second substantive is added to express some attribute, description, or 
appellative belonging to the first, and must always be in the same 
member of the sentence ; i. e. they must be both in the subject, or 
both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another, though 
denoting the same thing, is not in apposition with it. See 436. 

367. — Obs. 1. One of the substantives is sometimes under-' 
stood ; as, Aatvdyrig 6 Kva^doov (sup. viog), Astyages, the son 
of Cyaxares. 

368. — Obs. 2. The possessive pronoun in any case being equi- 
valent in signification to the genitive of the substantive pronoun 
from which it is derived, requires a substantive in apposition 
with it to be put in the genitive ; as, Jar t Q ifibg r t v xvvcqtii- 
dog, He was the brother-in-law of me, a shameless woman. 
See 399-1?. 

369. — Obs. 3. On the same principle, possessive adjectives 
formed from proper names, being equivalent to the genitive oi 
their primitives, have a noun in apposition in the genitive ; as, 
NeotOQErj naqk vr\C nvhffsvsog ^aaiXtjog, Near the ship 
of Nestor a king born at Pylos ; Xft'nva.Zog <av, nolscog 
rijg lAtyiazTjc, Being a citizen of Athens, a very large city. See 
399-18. 



206 CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. § ISO, 131. 

370. — Obs. 4. Sometimes the latter of two substantives sig- 
nifying the same thing, is put in the genitive ; as, Ilohg u^S-rj- 
vwv (for A&^vai), The city of Athens. 



§130. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

371. — Rule II. An adjective agrees with its 
substantive in gender, nu?nber, and case ; as, 

XQrjGtbg avrjQ, a good man. 

xalij yvvt], a beautiful woman. 

aya&op XQW a > a 9°°d thing. 

372 — This Rule applies to the article, adjective, adjective pro- 
nouns, and participles. 

373. — Obs. 1. Other words are sometimes used as adjectives, 
and consequently fall under this rule ; viz. 

1st. A substantive which limits the signification of a more 

general term ; as/ Eklag cpcovtj, the Greek language. 
2d. Adverbs placed between the article and its substantive ; 

as, 6 fisza^v i6nog, the intervening space. 
374. — Obs. 2. The place of the adjective is sometimes sup- 
plied by a substantive with a preposition ; as, iftovi] (Asia do£ng 
(for wdo^og), exalted pleasure : — sometimes, by a substantive gov- 
erning the other in the genitive ; as, fia&og ytjg, depth of earth, 
'i.e. deep earth; tj neqiaaua Ttjg %dQwog y abundance of grace, 
i. e. abundant grace. For the adverbial adjective, see 662. 



§ 131. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONCORD OF THE 
ADJECTIVE. 

375. — Obs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, unless taken 
separately, have an adjective plural. If all the substantives be 
of the same gender, the adjective will be of that gender. If of 
different genders, the adjective takes the masculine rather than 
the feminine, and the feminine rather than the neuter. But if 
the substantives signify things without life, the adjective is com- 
monly put in the neuter gender. Not unfrequently, however, the 
adjective agrees with one of the substantives and is understood 



§ 131. CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. 207 

to the rest ; as, atel yuo zoi eg ig ze cp IX n , TtoXefAOize \idyaizz ; 
contention to thee is always delightful, and wars and battles. 

376. — Obs. 2. When the substantive to which the adjective 
belongs may be easily supplied, it is frequently omitted, and the 
adjective, assuming its gender, number, and case, is used as a 
substantive; as, 6 ^kdnvuiog, the Athenian ; ol dixcuoi y the right- 
eous. 

377. — Obs. 3. Adjectives in ixog are used in the neuter gen- 
der with the article, and without a substantive in two different 
senses. 1. In the singular they express generally a whole ; as, 
zb Innixov, the cavalry ; to noXizixov, the citizens. 2. In the 
plural they signify any circumstance which can be determined 
by the context; as, zd Tocoixd, the Trojan war; zd 'EXXijnxd, 
the Grecian history. 

378. — Obs. 4. The adjective, especially when used as a predi- 
cate, without a substantive, is often put in the neuter gender, 
XQtiiia, noayiictj Two;', <fco. being understood; as, ?j nc&Qig 
qjiXzazov (scil. %Dtjpa) foozoig, their country is (a thing) very 
dear to men ; ^uXtnbv zb noiui; to do is hard. 

379. — Obs. 5. Two adjectives are frequently joined together, 
one of which, by expressing negatively the sense of the other, 
renders it more emphatic; as, yrcord x' ovx dyvcord poi, literally, 
known and not unknown (i. e. weU known), to me. 

380. — Obs. 6. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter 
singular or plural, with or without an. article, for adverb* 
ttqcotov, in the first place ; zb noMZor, at first ; zd fidXiGza,* 
ch iefiy ; xovajoua, secretly, <fcc. 

381. — Obs. 7. In any gender or number, adjectives are some- 
times used in the sense of adverbs, to express a circumstance of 
time, place, order, manner; as, tnaaov dy xnazivoi, they fell 
near each other; dcpacszo dtvztoaiog — ZQizalog, he came 
on the second — third day, 662. So in Latin, qui creatur an- 
imus. Caes. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

382. — Exc. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender 
or number from the substantive with which it is connected, tacitly 
referring to its meaning rather than to its form, or to some other 
word synonymous with it, or implied in it ; as, 

xoqiov xaXXiaza, a most beautiful girl. 

w dyctft? tyvyfi, brave soul. 

XyoztjQtov nvQ imcptQOvzag, a band of thieves bringing fire. 



208 CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. § 131. 

383. — Exc. 2. A collective noun in tli3 singular may have an 
adjective in the plural, and in the gender of the individuals which 
form the collection; as, ftovXij ifivxiav £i%ev — ovn ayvovvzsg, 
the council kept peaceable — not being ignorant. 

So in Latin, maxima pars — in flumen acti sunt. Lat. Gr. 2*79. 

384. — Exc. 3. In the dual number, the Attic writers some- 
times join a masculine adjective with a feminine noun; as, tovico 
too rjpEQa, these two days. 

385. — Exc. 4. An adjective masculine, in the superlative de- 
gree, is sometimes joined to a feminine noun, to increase the force 
of the superlative ; as, at xogcu fAsXavruioi, very black pu- 
pils. Also, a masculine adjective is joined with a feminine noun, 
when the plural is used for the singular, and when a chorus of 
women speak of themselves ; thus, Medea says of herself, nal yaq 
Tjdixwptvoi Giyrjoofie&a, xqsiggovcov vixo)[tsvoi y though in- 
jured / will be silent, yielding to superior powers. 

386. — Exc. 5. An adjective in the masculine gender may be 
joined with a noun denoting a female, if the attention is drawn 
to the idea of a person without regard to the sex. 

387. — Exc. 6. A substantive dual may have an adjective plu- 
ral ; and vice versa, a substantive plural, when two is denoted, 
may have an adjective dual ; as, cpiXug ttsqI VsTqs fidXcopsv, let 
us embrace; dvo /dcfiata ixofisvw dXXrjXcov, two successive 
chasms ; lit. two chasms adjoining each other. 

388. — Exc. 7. The adjectives waarog, aXXog, in the singular, 
•are put with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the objects ex- 
pressed by them are spoken of individually and distributively ; as, 

oids sxaazog ids'xovro oVxa, they each received ten. 
j]Q(6<z(ov 8s dXXog dXXo, they asked some one thing 

and some another. 

So in Latin, Quisque pro se queruntur. Li v. Lat. Gr. 281. 

389. — Exc. 8. Plural adjectives sometimes agree with their 
substantives in gender and number, and govern them in the gen- 
itive case ; as, 

ot naXaioi tojv ttoiijtcov, the ancient poets. 

So also among the Attic writers in the singular ; as, 

diaroificov rbv TtoXXov rov xqovov, spending much time. 

390. — Exc. 9. Instead of agreeing with its substantive, the 
adjective is sometimes put in the neuter gender, and the substan- 
tive following it in the genitive (461); as, sig roaovzov roXfivg 



§ 132. COMPARATIVES AXD SUPERLATIVES. 209 

(for TOGavTTjv rolfiijv), to such a pitch of boldness. The abstract 
noun is sometimes used instead of the adjective ; as, fid&og yr t g, 
depth of earth, instead of fiafteia yr t , deep earth. 374. 

391. — Exc. 10. Proper names in the singular, are sometimes 
accompanied by the adjectives nq&zog, Tictg, and others in the 
neuter plural, as predicates or in apposition ; as, sfu[MT<»v, Alyi- 
vnrt'cov ra n q co t a , La?npon, the chief of the JEghietce ; nav~ 
ta dq ]jv zouji BapvlcQvioiGi ZooTivpog, Zopyrus was indeed 
every thing to the Babylonians. 

392. — Exc. 11. Demonstrative pronouns in the neuter singu- 
lar, may refer to nouns of any gender which do not express a 
person ; and in the neuter plural, to persons as well as things, 
and to the singular as well as to the plural ; as, negl avdoiag, 
lm tzogo) av avtov (avdoiag) dt'Zaio cjztneo&ai; concerning 
manly fortitude, for how much would you consent to be de- 
prived of it ? rotg tig tavta ihcuanravovGi^ icho offend against 
these, scil. rovg naibug xai rag yvrai/.ug, wins and children. 

So also with the adjectives nXeiov, 7r).eico, ptTov, &c; as, 
in 7i sag fuv a$£i ov fitiov diGfivotcov, he will bring not less 
than twenty thousand horse ; lit. he will bring horsemen not 
fewer than twentij thousand. 



393.— § 132. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

1. The comparative is used when two objects or classes ot 
objects are compared ; the superlative, when more than two are 
compared. 

2. The positive is sometimes used in a comparative sense, and 
is followed by the infinitive ; as, otiyot ovftfiufoiv, too few to 
fight. 

3. When one quality is compared with another in the same 
subject, the adjectives expressing these qualities are both put in 
the comparative degree connected by Jj; as, nXovaixoxeQog ?} 
onqcoTsoog, more rich than ivise. So in Latin, decentior quam 
sublimior fuit. Tacit Lat. Gr. 474. 

4. The comparative is sometimes made by joining fidXXov 
with the positive ; and, for the sake of emphasis, sometimes with 
the comparative ; as, (xa)lov olyicoztoog, more happy. 

5. The superlative is often used to express a very high degree 
of a quality in an object, but without comparing it with any 



210 ' ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. § 133. 

other ; as, avtjQ cpilozijiozazog, a very ambitious man ; 7TQtjyfjia 
evtj&sazazov, a very foolish thing. 168. 

6. The superlative is often strengthened in signification by 
adding certain adverbial words and particles; such as, tzoXXo), 
fiaxQcpj noli), fialiaza, nXeiozov, o%a, cog, oncog, on, %, &o. ; as, 
nollty do&avsatatov, much the weakest ; o/' doiGzog, eminently 
the best ; dog zd%iGza, as quickly as possible ; ozi tiKugzov %o6- 
vov, as long time as possible. Also by the numeral slg ; as, aig 
an/Q fitlziGZog, a man of all others the best. 

For the construction of the comparative and superlative de- 
grees, as it respects government, see 472 and 482. 



§133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

394. — Special Rule. Adjective pronouns agree 
with their substantives in gender, number, and 
case. 

395. — The Definite, avrog. 

For the import and use of the Definite pronoun avzog, see 
§ 62. In construction it is often similar to the demonstratives, 
396-5. 

1. When used as a personal pronoun, avzog takes the gender 
and number of the noun for which it stands, and the case which 
the noun would have in its place. Sometimes, however, like the 
adjective (382), it takes the gender and number of a synony- 
mous substantive, or of one that expresses the meaning of that for 
which it stands; as, fia&qzEvaazs ndvza zd itivn fianzl'Qovzag 
avzovg, " teach all nations baptizing them," where avzovg is 
put for av&Q037iovg, which expresses the meaning of e&vq. 

Note. This observation applies to all adjective pronouns used with- 
out, and instead of, the substantives, to which they refer. 

3 96. — Demonstratives. 

2. The Demonstratives are used without a substantive, only 
when they refer to a noun, or pronoun, or substantive clause in 
the proposition going before, or in that coming immediately after. 

3. When two persons or things are spoken of, ovzog, this, re- 
fers to the latter; ixzivog, that, to the former. In the same 



§ 133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 211 

manner are sometimes used 6 fie'v, og \iev, referring to the for- 
mer, and 6 oV, bg 6Y, referring to the latter ; sometimes vice verm. 

4. The demonstratives ovzog and ode are generally distin- 
guished thus ; ovzog refers to what immediately precedes, ode to 
what immediately follows ; as, zavza dxovaag, having heard 
these things ; eXeye zdde, he announced as follows. 

5. The demonstrative words are frequently used in a kind of 
apposition with a noun, or pronoun, or part of a sentence in the 
same proposition. This is done, 1. for the sake of emphasis, or, 
at the beginning of a sentence, to call the attention more particu- 
larly to what is to be said; as, zi 8 ixeiva (paper, zdg nsvmg 
ze xal ioojztjGeig, what shall I sag as to these things question 
and interrogation? Long, zi not iazlv avzb, r\ aoezi\\ what 
is virtue ? In such cases the pronoun is commonly in the neu- 
ter gender. 2. If the parts of a sentence immediately related, 
are separated by intervening clauses, the pronoun, being intro- 
duced in the last part, in apposition with the distant word in the 
first, brings them as it were together ; as, d)ld &eov*g ye zovg 
dei ovzag xai . . . . zovzovg (fo^ovfievoi fii)ze daefieg fufiey 
Tzou'jGyze, " but the gods who are eternal, and whose power and 
inspection extend over all things, and who preserve the harmony 
and order of the universe free from decay or defect, the great- 
ness and beauty of which is inexplicable — fearing these, do 
nothing wicked" 

6. When that with which the demonstrative stands in appo- 
sition is a sentence, or part of a sentence, it is put in the neuter 
gender, and is often connected with it by ozi or mg ; as, dX£ 
o78e zovzo, ozi zavza pev eoziv dnavza zd %toQia xsiptva ev 
fis'aq}, but he knows this well, that all these places are openly be- 
fore them. 

The sentence is sometimes so arranged that the clause with 
ozi stands first; as, ozi o" el%e nzeqa, zovz' i'ofiev, but we knew 
this, that he luad wings. This construction, so common in Greek, 
is seldom if ever used in Latin. 

7. Ovzog, with xai before it, is used in the latter clause of a 
sentence, in an adverbial or ctnjunctive sense, to call the atten- 
tion more particularly to the circumstance which it introduces, 
and may be rendered u and that" "and truly" "indeed" u al- 
though" &c, as the sense may require ; as, ovzoi ydq [lovvot 
*Itavtov ovx ayovai Anazovqia, xal ovzoi xazd yovov zivk 
oxijilnv,' for these alone of the Ionians do not celebrate the Apa- 
touria, and that under pretext of a certain murder ; lit. and 
these (do so) under pretext, <fec. rvvaixbg xal zavz-ng vexqag, 



212 ADJECTIVE PKONOUNS. §133. 

si tig Xiyei rovvopa, mcpQixe, if any one mentions the name of a 
woman, although (i. e. and that woman being) dead, he shud- 
ders. 

But when the pronoun is less definite, not referring to any 
particular substantive in the preceding clause, but to something 
expressed in it, it is put in the neuter plural, and may generally 
be rendered " especially" " although" &c. ; as, Jti/ oY pot doxerg 
ov 7iQ06&i&iv iov vovv rovroig, xai ravra 6oq)bg mv, but you do 
not seem to me to give your attention to these things, although 
being wise. Expressions of this kind are doubtless elliptical, 
noimg or some such word being understood, and may be ren- 
dered " and these things you do" Indeed, it is sometimes ex- 
pressed ; thus, in Dem. pro Phor., after reproaching Apollodorus 
with his dissolute conduct, he adds, xal ravra yvvaixa £%cov 
aoieig, and these things you do, having a wife ; which, with- 
out TtoiEig, might be rendered " though having a wife" 

Yet sometimes these words seem to have no dependence on 
any part of the sentence, but are thrown in to call the attention 
to a special circumstance. 

8. The demonstrative pronoun is often joined with adverbs of 
time and place, to define these circumstances with greater empha- 
sis or precision ; as, ra vvv rdde, just now ; rovr ixel, at that 
very time. 

9. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used instead of 
the personal pronouns eyw and gv, and, in speaking, when thus 
used, were probably accompanied with action, so as clearly to 
point out the person intended. When used instead of the 2d 
person, they most commonly express contempt. The expression 
ovrog sl(ii is equivalent to the Latin en adsum, Lo ! here am I. 

397. — The Indefinite rig. 

10. The indefinite rig, L88, added to a substantive, commonly 
answers to the English words a, an, a certain one, any one, &c. , 
as, zig avijQ, a man, any man, some man. — Sometimes with a 

noun it is used collectively; as„ &q(o6y.(ov tig xaza xvfia 

i%ftvg, many a fish bounding through the wave. — Sometimes 
distributively ; as, xal rig omrjv dva7tXaaaa&co, and let every 
one build his own house. 

11. With adjectives of quality, quantity, and magnitude, es- 
pecially when they stand without a substantive expressed, or in 
the predicate, it serves to temper the expression by asserting the 
existence of the quality in a less positive and unlimited manner, 



§ 133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUXS. 213 

6uch as may be expressed b) T the English words somewhat, in 
some degree, ratlier ; as, dvafiarog rig, somewhat difficult to be 
passed ; dvafiad'rig rig, rather hard to learn. With numerals 
it means nearly, about, <fcc. ; as, dt'xa nvig, about ten. So also 
with adverbs ; as, 6%z8 6v, nearly ; a%t86v n, pretty nearly ; 
noXv, much ; noXv n, considerably ; ovdt'v, nothing ; ovbiv ri, 
scarcely any thing. 

12. Without an additional adjective, rig has the sense of emi- 
nent, distinguished ; as, ev^trai r i g shot, he boasts himself to 

be SOME GREAT ONE. 

13. In the neuter gender, it is also sometimes nearly redun 
dant, being introduced apparently for the sake of sound. In such 
cases it is to be considered in the accusative governed by nurd, 
and seems to strengthen the expression ; as, ovze ti [idvzig icov, 
not being at all a prophet ; fxtya r 1 nut irtcnt'otov rufvovoyri^ia, 
a work of art evidently great and divine. 

398. — The Interrogative r& 

14. The interrogative 7/V, ri, is used in asking a direct ques- 
tion; as, rig tnou t ae; who did it f Though sometimes used in 
the indirect interrogation, oaztg is more common ; as, &uvjjid£a) 
rig for more frequently orrzig) UtOUjOB, I wonder who did it. 
Sometimes it is accompanied by the article 6 rig, who ; ro ri, 
what. "Oazig is always used interrogatively when a person to 
whom an interrogation is put, repeats it before answering it; as, 
ah 8 1 el rig drdowv ; oazig tifi 1 r/co ; Mezcor, who are you ? who 
am I ? M( tm. 

15. In the predicate, zl, with tari following it, is sometimes ac- 
companied by the subject of iazi in the plural ; as, &av[id£(a ri 
ttoz' mi Tici'Td, I wonder what tsebe things are. 

16. The interrogative 7/V is often used independently of other 
words in the sentence, being governed by xard, or some such 
word understood, and may Be rendered in what? as to what ? 
&c. ; as, ray ri oocfojv smaz/jfioveg ; in what sort of wisdom 
are they expert ? Sometimes it is used for did ri, or ftobg ri, 
what ? why ? on what account? im ri, for what purpose t mag 
ri, how ? So, ri de, but what ? 

399. — Possessive Pronouns. 

17. The possessive pronoun is in signification equivalent to 
the genitive of the pronoun from which it is derived, and -while, 
like the adjective, it agrees with its substantive in gender, num- 

10* 



214 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. § 134. 

ber, and case, yet other words at the sam?- time often regard it as 
the genitive of the personal pronoun. Hence the following modes 
of expression, to gov fiovov hwQVfia, equivalent to to gov fiovov t 
&c, the gift of thee alone. Aqvvfievog razoog if fizyu xieog 
?/#' ifiov avtov, where ifiov agrees with xlt'og in the accusative, 
and yet, as if it were the genitive of the substantive pronoun ii 
is coupled with naroog in the genitive, and followed by avtov. 
So also voo'ksQOV Xe'xog avtwv, our own bed ; ra vfieteQa o»>tcqv. 
your own property ; i)p> Gcpttsouv avzmv (scil. xcqqccv), tfair own 
country. 

The same construction is common in Latin ; as, " mea ipsius 
culpa" " Cum mea nemo scripta legat, vulgo recitare timentis. % 
"Beneficio meo etpopuli Romani." Lat. Gr. 256 and 283. 

18. The same observation extends to possessive adjectives ' 
as, d de fie dsi yvvaiaeiag %i dgeTijg oaai vvv iv ^oet'a %gov- 
tai, [ivqG&ijvcu, If 1 must also say something concerning the vir- 
tue of those women, who are from this time to live in widow- 
hood ; where yvvcaxelag, is equivalent to the genitive too? yvvcu- 
xoHv, to which ogcu refers. 

19. The possessive pronouns are employed only when an em- 
phasis is required ; in all other cases the personal pronouns are 
used in their stead ; as, nazi]q ijficov, our father, literally, the 
father of us. But naxi]Q Tjfie'zeoog means our own father. 

20. The possessive pronoun is sometimes used objectively; 
as, aog Tto&og, not " thy regret" but " regret for thee ; " tdfia 
vov&errjfiaza, not " the lessons which I give" but " the lessons 
which thou givest me." This use of the possessive corresponds to 
the passive sense of the genitive, 452. 

21. The possessive pronoun is sometimes put in the neuter 
gender with the article, for the personal ; as, to vfiheoov for 
vfielg ; rdfid for iyco ; to ifiov for sfie. Also without the article 
after a preposition ; as, iv ^fiersqov (scil. dcofiau), for iv ?jfiav 9 in 
our house. 



§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 

400. — Special Rule. The article agrees with its 
substantive in gender, number, and case. 

401. — Exc. 1. In gender. The masculine article is often put 
with a feminine noun in the dual number (384) ; as, too yvmixd, 
the two women. 



§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 215 

402. — Exc. 2. In number. The article may be put iis the 
plural, when it refers to two or more nouns in the singular (375) ; 
as, at Aftrivaii] re. xm "Hoy, Minerva and Juno. 

403 . — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Nouns used indefinitely are commonly without the article. 
In general, the article is prefixed to all nouns not used indefinitely 
Nouns are made definite by a limiting word, phrase, or clause ; 
by previous mention, by general notoriety or distinction, by pecu- 
liarity of state or relation, or by emphasis or contrast 

2. The article is prefixed to nouns when they designate a 
class or species ; as, 6 av\ro(07z6g egti thv/roV, man is mortal. 

3. It is prefixed to abstract nouns when personified, or with 
a reference to something expressed or understood ; as, *H xaxia 
VTZoXafiovGa elite, Vice interrupting said ; <i)\v aXij&etav Titgl 
rovzcov, the TRUTH concerning these things. 

4. When one noun is predicated of another, the subject of the 
proposition is generally found with the article, and the predicate 
without it; as, doxbg iytved"' tj xoorj, the maiden became a 
wine-skin. 

5. The article is prefixed to nouns to mark , emphasis or dis- 
tinction ; as, 6 Trolsfiog ovx dvev xivovvwv, t) dt sloi'jvn axivov- 
vog, war is not wWiout dangers, but peace is free from danger ; 
(here the opposition between 6 noXtfiog and >) eioTpn] renders both 
words emphatic, which is marked by the article prefixed ;) 6 
ffOinr^g, the Poet, soil. Homer, 

6. Proper names, when first mentioned, are without the arti- 
cle ; on renewed mention, they generally have it. But the arti- 
cle is never prefixed to a proper name followed by an appellative 
with the article ; as, Kvpog 6 fiaoiXevg, Cyrus the king. 

7. The article is generally placed before appellatives, and all 
words and phrases which are placed after a substantive Tor the 
purpose of definition or description ; such as a substantive in ap- 
position, an adjective, a participle, an adverb, a preposition with 
its case ; as, ^(oxQdrrjg 6 (piXooocpog, Socrates, the philosopher ; 
ol vofioi ol ao%aioi, the ancient laws, <kc. 

8. Before a participle, the article is to be translated as the re- 
lative, and the participle as the indicative mood of its own tense ; 
as, rial ol Xe'yovreg, there are (those) who say. But, 

9. A participle between the article and its noun is to be re- 
garded as an adjective, and rendered accordingly ; as, ol vtzoq- 
%ovreg v6(iot, the existing laws. So also, other words and phrases 
between the article and its noun, like an adjective, qualify tha 



216 CONSTKUCTION OF THE AETICLE. §134. 

noun, and frequently have a participle understood ; as, y nobg 
PaXdrag \ndyr\ ; scil. yevofisvn, the battle against the Gauls. 

10. An adverb with the article prefixed is used sometimes as 
a noun, sometimes as an adjective ; as, ol niXag, those near, i. e. 
the neighbours ; tj avco ndXig, the upper city, 378. 

11. Adjectives, participles, adverbs, adverbial particles and 
phrases, used in the sense of nouns, have the article prefixed ; as, 
ol ftvnToi, mortals ; ol xoXaxsvovTsg, flatterers ; y uvqiov (scil. 
yfjitQa), the morrow ; to ri, the substance ; to noibv, the quality ; 
to 7z6aov f the quantity ; to (og, the manner in which, &c. 

12. The article without a substantive, before dficpi or tzeqi with 
their case, denotes something peculiar to, or distinguishing the 
person, place, or thing expressed by the noun ; as, ol aeol tiyqav, 
those devoted to the chase, i. e. " hunters ; " to tteqi yldfiipaxov, 
tlie affair at Lampsacus; ta dpcpl noXepov, what belongs to war ; 
sometimes it is a mere circumlocution for the noun itself; as, to. 
Ttsol r)\v apaoTLav, for r\ dpaQTia. 

13. Ol tteqi, and ol dfiopi, with a proper name, have the fol- 
lowing peculiarities of meaning; viz. 1. the person himself ; as, 
ol dfiffi .IlQiafiov xcu Tldv&oov, Priam and Panthous ; 2. the 
followers of the person named ; as, ol neql ^gxidafiov, the com- 
panions of Archidamus ; 3. the person named, and his compan- 
ions and followers ; as, ol dficpi neiaiGToarov, Pisistratus and 
his troops. 

14. The neuter article in any case prefixed to the infinitive 
mood (§173, I.), gives it the sense and construction of the Latin 
gerund, or a verbal noun ; as, tov qnXoaocpeiv to tyxeiv, inquir- 
ing is the business of philosophy ; rb xaXmg Xe'yeiv, the speaking 
well. 

15. In the neuter gender, and in any case which the con- 
struction requires, the article is placed, 1. Before entire propo- 
sition! or quotations in a sentence construed as nouns ; as, Ezi 
ds tovtwv tqittj diacpoga, to, cag exaata tovtcov [Ufirjacuzo civ 
rig, Moreover there is in these a third difference, viz. the manner 
in ivhich one should imitate each of these objects ; ix de tovtow 
doting av fipt to "k'qyov 8* ovdtv weidog," but according to 
these views, the sentiment " labour is no dishonour" would be 




the article is commonly in the gender of the noun ; as, to oroiia 
6 "Atdng, the name Hades. 

16. The article is often prefixed to possessive, demonstrative, 



§134. 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 



217 



distributive, and other pronouns, for the sake of greater emphasis 
or more precise definition ; thus, ifibg viog, «is merely a son of 
mine ; but 6 i^ibg vlog, is my son. The following change of sig- 
nification effected by the article may be noticed : 



allot 


others, 


ol allot 


the others, the rest. 


allfj 


other, 


y oHlrj 'Elldg 


the rest of Greece. 


nollot 


many, 


ol nolloi 


the multitude. 


nluovg 


more, 


ol nlelovg 


the most. 


avtog 


himself, 


6 avtog 


the same. 


navteg 


all, 


ol ndvteg 


(after numerals) in all. 


oltyoi 


few, 


ol oliyoi 


the few, the Oligarchs. 



17. When the article is used with ovtog or ixetvog, the pro- 
noun must stand before the article, or after the substantive ; as, 
ovtog 6 dvtjQ, or 6 dvtjg ovtog, this same man. 

18. The article is frequently used alone, having its substantive 
understood. This is the case when the substantive to which the 
article refers, being apparent from the connection or sense of the 
passage, can be easily supplied. The neuter article is often thus 
DBed with the genitive Of another noun, XQht ia y TTQuyua, &c, 
being understood : — 1. In the singular, to intimate what a person 
has done, is wont to do, or has befallen him ; as, xat rot Soxai 
fiot to tov 'Jfivxetov innov nmovdtvai, and I seem to be in the 
same situation with the horse of Jbycus. 2. In the plural, to 
denote every thing that concerns, arises from, or belongs to, that 
which the substantive expresses; as, ta qD.ow 8 ovdt'v, the as- 
sistance of friends is nothing} du qt-'ottv td tuv &ea>r, we 
must bear the visitation of the gods. In the singular or plural, 
it is often merely a periphrasis for the substantive; as, to or td 
rtjg 6ny7jg, for ;) onyi] ; and an adjective, &c. put with such a 
periphrasis tak«'s the gender and number of the substantive, and 
the case of the article; as, td tap diaxovow — jzoiovfievot, tlie 
messengers — considering. 

19. The article combined with par and 8e, has in some de- 
gree the force of a pronoun, and is used in a distributive sense, — 
the article with (u'v standing in the first member of the sentence, 
and with 8b in the parts that follow ; as, tov \l\ v ittfia, tov 8' 
ov, this one, he honoured, that one not ; ol fiev ixvjievov, ol 
8* emvov, ol 8' iyv[ivd£ovto, some played at dice, some drank, 
some exercised themselves. When governed by a preposition, 
uev and 8s are placed immediately after the preposition ; thus, 
iv fiEv totg — iv 8e totg. 

20. In the Ionic and some other writers, especially Homer 



218 RELATIVE PRONOUN. § 135. 

and Herodotus, the article o, y, zo, is very frequently used as a 
relative, and sometimes as a personal pronoun ; as, A^illta 
(p.ety(o zbv Ideiv aia^vvofiai, I flee from Achilles whom / am 
ashamed to see ; zb {mv izixranzo, it (the child) was buried. 
186-2. 



§ 135. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

404. — Rule III. The relative agrees with its 
antecedent in gender, number, and person j as, 

/) yvv?j ?}v si'doper, the woman whom we saw. 

o avtjQ bg ?jl&s, the man who came. 

za iqriiiaza a ei%s, the things which he had. 

405. — 1. The antecedent is the substantive, or something 
equivalent to a substantive (421), in a preceding clause to which 
the relative refers. Sometimes, however, as in Latin, the relative 
and its clause is placed before the antecedent and its clause. 

406. — 2. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree with 
the antecedent, but with the same word expressed or understood 
after the relative, and with which, like the adjective, it agrees in 
gender, number, and case, as well as person ; thus, 6 Innog bv 
(itztzov) elxe, the horse which (horse) he had. Hence, in connect- 
ing the antecedent and relative clauses, the following variety of 
usage occurs ; viz., 

1st. The word to which the relative refers is commonly ex- 
pressed in the antecedent clause, and not with the rela- 
tive ; as, ovzog iazi 6 av?jQ bv eldeg, this is the man 
whom you saw. 
2d. It is often not expressed in the antecedent clause, and 
expressed with the relative ; as, ovzog iazi bv eldeg av- 
8ga. 
3d. Sometimes, when greater precision is required, it is ex- 
pressed in both ; as, ovzog iozi b dvtjQ bv tideg avdoa. 
4th. When the reference is of a general nature, and there is 
no danger of obscurity, the word to which the relative 
refers is understood in both clauses ; as, bv y&sXei ixzave, 
bv ?jd-eXei e<j&>ae, whom he would he slew, whom he would 
he saved alive. All this variety is common in Latin as 
well as in Greek. (Lat. Gr, 286.) 



§ 135. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 219 

407. — 3. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a preceding 
word ; as, oixia n vfiETtoa ol yz %Q7jo&e, &c, your house who 
use, &c, where ol refers to the personal pronoun implied in v/jie- 
t€qci (399-17). 

408. — 4. When the relative comes after two words of differ- 
ent persons, it agrees with the first or second person rather than 
the third; as, elfu o^ iyoj fiaailevg og rifiwfiai. 

409. — 5. When the relative is placed between two substan- 
tives of different genders, it sometimes agrees in gender with the 
latter; as, to ootqov ?jv ovofMi^ovciv Alya, the constellation 
which they call the Goat. 

410. — 6. Exc. The relative sometimes takes the 
gender and number, not of the antecedent noun, 
but of some one synonymous with it, or implied 
in it ; as, 

1st. davovrcov tixvcov ovg Jldgaaiog mays, their children 
having died, whom Adrastus led. In this sentence, ovg 
refers to natdcor, as synonymous with itxrcor. 

2d. ndvzwv uvxtq^tkov og xt oev urn tlftrj, of every 
man, who shall come against you ; where og in the sin- 
gular, referring to a plural antecedent, shows that the 
men are spoken of in the relative clause individually. 

3d. vmQ anacrjg 'EXXddog wv xazt'oug externa, for all 
Greece, whose father* the tlew ; where gov refers to the 
meaning of 'ED.ddog in this sentence ; i. e. the men of 
Greece. 

4th* 0ij6avQOXOWg urijQ ovg o'// xui tnunu xo nXq&og, A 
ma s '"/ in wealth, whom even the multitude ap- 

plaud. Here, though the antecedent dvfe is singular, 
the relative ovg is plural, because it refers not to an indi- 
vidual man, but to the class or kind of men spoken of. 

411. — f. Instead of og the compound pronoun ootig is used 
as a relative after nag, ovSti'g, or any word in the singular ex- 
pressing an indefnite number, and oaoi after the same words in 
the plural ; as, nag oatig, every one who ; navxeg oaot, all who ; 
and if the indefinite is not expressed in the antecedent clause, 
the use of the relative shows that it is understood, and is to be 
expressed in the translation ; as, tug 7t6).eig oaai, all the cities 
which. Sometimes it is used simply for og. 

412. — 8. If no nominative come between the relative and 
the verb, the relative will be the nominative to the verb. 



220 RELATIVE PRONOUN. §135. 

If a nominative come between the relative and the verb, the 
relative will be of that case which the verb or noun following, 
or the preposition going before, usually governs. But, 

Attraction of the Helatwe. 

413. — 9. Mac. I. The relative is often attracted 
into the case of its antecedent ; as, 

Examples. 1. avv raig vavalv alg (for ag) e7%e, with the 
ships which he had. 2. (leraaxe'rco rrjg ijdovtjg ?jg (for ijv) 
sdmxa vftiv, let him share the pleasure which I gave you. 3. 
[A,e(A,vi][A,k f vog cov snouts (for rosv TTQayfidrmv a engage, 406-4th), 
being mindful o/what he did. 4. arzoXavco mv l/oo dya&av, 
I enjoy what goods I have (406-2d). 

Note 1. The rule of attraction seems to have its foundation alto- 
gether in euphony ; and hence, generally, attractions will be found only 
where they improve the euphony of a sentence. 

Note 2. This construction is sometimes, though very seldom, imi- 
tated in Latin ; as, Oirciter sexcentas ejus generis oujus supra demonstra- 
vimus, naves invenit. CLes. See Lat. Gr. 298. 

414. — 10. JExg. II. The antecedent is sometimes 
attracted into the case of the relative ; as, 

jLWov d* ov rev oldcc rev av xlvra revved Ovw, I know not 
any other person whose renowned armour I could put on. Here 
dXlov is attracted by the relative rev (for rov, 142, used for ov, 
186-2), from the accusative into the genitive. Lat. Gr. 299. 

On this principle are to be construed such sentences as the 
following: ovdeva xivdvvov ovriv' ov% vne\ieivav, for ovdeig 
ijv xivbvvog ovnva, there was no danger which they did not 
undergo; ovoeva eyaaav ovriv' ov daxgvovra dnoarqe- 
cpeadai, for ovdeig l\v ovriv ecpaaav ov daxgvovra, &c. there was 
no one who, they said, did not return weeping ; rivag rovad 3 
boa %evovg, for riveg eiaiv ovroi ol %evoi ovg oqoj ; who are 
these strangers whom I see ? 

415. — 11. The relative plural, and in all its cases with lari 
before it, is used for, or rather is the original form of, the adjec- 
tive evioi, -ai, -a, some (earl being sometimes written evij ; as, 
y.u.1 eat i ol (i.e. evioi) ervy%avov ■frcoQaxoov, and some hit 
breastplates; dno rwv 7tolecov eariv cov (i.e. evicov), from 
some cities. 

In this construction earl is found with oarig, both singular 
and plural ; as, ean oang f some one ; eari oiriveg t some. 



§ 136. RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS. 221 

416. — 12. In certain cases, it is used adverbially, some other 
word being understood ; thus, ov, where ; y t where, as far as, 
how, in what manner ; and sometimes thus used, it is preceded 
by tatl, the two words being used as an adverb ; as, eaziv ov or 
w&a, sometimes, in some places, in many places. 



417.— §136. THE RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS 
olog, oaog, yXi'xog, &c. 

1. The relative adjectives olog, oaog, i)Xixog, like the relative 
pronoun, always refer to a kindred word before them expressed 
or understood, implying a comparison of equality similar to talis 
qualis, tantus quantus, in Latin (Lat. Gr. 300) ; as, 

roTog or roiovzog — olog, such — as. 
roaog or toaovzog — oaog, so many — as. 
rqlixog — ijtixog, of such an aye or size — as. 

2. The antecedent and relative adjectives both refer to the 
same substantive, with which they agree in gender and number, 
while each takes the case required by the construction of the 
clause in which it stands: thus, Dim. Olynth. I, " As for the 
rest they are thieves and flatterers, and zoiovxovg ur&oco- 
novg oiovg tie&va&tvzag boxtZaftai zoiavza ola lyco ww 
oxvuj orofucaia, s"uch men as, when intoxicated, to dance such 
dances as / dare not name. 

3. The antecedent word is most "commonly understood, and 
the relative is translated with some variety according to the con- 
nection in which it stands. The most of the cases in which, e.g. 
olog is used for roiovzog oiog, may be reduced to three ; viz. 1st, 
when it stands before a substantive ; 2d, before an adjective ; 3d, 
before a verb. 

4. First. Before a substantive, oiog elegantly takes the case 
in which its antecedent roiovzog would be, if expressed, and 
changes the substantive before which it stands into the same 

1 > y at traction ; thus, ovx tarty uvcIqI oico 2coxnarti 
ypmtd&T&cu, to lie is not befittinq such a man as Socrates is, for 
ovx laztv drdol zoiovzco oiog 2.03xpdzi;g laziv \pevdea&ai. Again, 
Xuoi^outrov oi co aoi drdoi, gratifying such a man as thou 
art, for dvdol roiovzcp oiog av (fife). 

J n some instances the noun after olog is not attracted into the 



222 RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS. §136. 

same case with it; as, zcov (zoiovzcov) oicovtzeq avzbg ovzcov, 

they being such as he. 

When the substantive to which oiog refers is obvious from 
the connection, it is frequently omitted, as in the preceding ex- 
ample. 

5. Sometimes oiog, with the clause in which it occurs, is ap- 
parently unconnected with the sentence. In such cases the con- 
nection is to be formed by supplying mg or on ; as, epaxdoi^ov 
z\v fj,qzeoa (on) olmv zexvcov invokes, they blessed the mother 
(because) she gave birth to (lit. became possessed of) such children. 

Of a similar nature are the Homeric expressions oi' dyoQSveig 
— oV eooyag, i. e. pzi oi\ &c. because you say — because you 
do such things. 

6. The construction is the same when oiog, or the substantive 
to which it belongs, is in the nominative, or is governed by a 
preposition ; as, alrf-dlg dyovzag nivxtog (on zoiovzog) oiog 
avzovg 6 dvvvog dit'yvyev, being truly grieved because such a 
thunny fish as this escaped them, Lucian ; iXm^ovzeg 7zdy%v 
a7ioXiea&ai ig oia xaxd r\xov y i. e. cog ig zoiavza oia xaxd, 
expecting total destruction since they were come into such cala- 
mities as these. In this way that difficult sentence in Thucy- 
dides is explained, xa\ [ibvi] (scil. X&rivaicov Tzohg) ovze zco noXe- 
uico ineX&bvzi ayavdxztjaiv fyei, vcp olcov xaxo7za&ei, i. e. cog 
V7ib zoiovzcov oicov Tj(A,8ig, and we are now the only state 
which does not excite indignation in an invading enemy, because 
(or since) they suffer from such a brave people as we are. 

In all constructions of this kind, the idea will be readily per- 
ceived by considering oiog as put for ozi or cog zoiovzog. See 
numerous examples in L. Bos. Ellipses, Gr. 271. Vio-erus, Ch. 3. 
§8,9. 

7. Second. Before an adjective, it may be resolved by supply- 
ing the infinitive elvai', as, el fiev ydo Tig avr t o iv avzoig eazi 
oiog e'lATZeioog 7toX(\iov, if any one among them is skilful in 
war, Dem. 0. 2. for roiovzog oiog eivai iiMEioog, is such as to be 
skilful, &c. ; oiog doiazog, the best, for roiovzog oiog ehcu aoia- 
zog, such as to be the best, &c. 

8. Oiog is frequently, however, joined with an adjective in the 
form of an exclamation or interrogation, apparently without re- 
ference to the usual antecedent ; as, oiog fieyag, oiog yaXsTiogj 
how great ! how difficult ! Thus Lysias, oiog fieyag xctt durbg 
xivdvvog ^ycoviadn, how great and terrible danger was risked 
(scil. for the liberty of Greece). If this and similar sentences, 
however, are thrown into the assertive form, they readily admit 



§ 137. CONSTRUCTION OF NOMINATIVE CASE. 223 

of the same resolution as the others ; thus, danger such as to be 
great and terrible was risked. 

9. Third. Joined with the verb stjtu expressed or understood, 
and followed by an infinitive, it signifies u I am of such a kind 
as, or such as ;" and, according to the connection in which it 
stands, may mean u I am able" u I am wont" " / am ready, or 
willing" — zoiovzog being always understood as an antecedent 
word; thus, ov yag ijp oiog lino navzbg xegdavai (i.e. zoiov- 
zog oiog), for he was not (such) as to makr gam from every 
thing ; i. e. he was not willing (or inclined) to do every thing for 
the sake of gain. 

10. The abbreviated expressions oiog eifu, and oiog z Eifti, are 
very common, and usually, but not always, observe this distinc- 
tion ; viz., that the former signifies " / am wont," the latter, " I 
am able, lean" and is equivalent to dvrctfuu ; as, oiog % el fit 
zovzo Tioitir, I can do this. — In the neuter, it is used imperson- 
ally ; as, o'cov ti ww, it is possible. 

11. Sometimes the verb eifti is also omitted; as, ?] dvvaizo 
axovtiv in zov fiij oi'ovze (eivai), or whether he could hear 

FROM NOT BEING ABLE TO HEAR FORMERLY. 

12. In the same manner zoiog or zoiovzog stands related to 
oiog following it, expressed or understood ; as, ow ur biuitjoaifit 
zoiovzco (scil. oiog avzog iazi), I would have no intercourse with 
such A man (scil. as he is). 

13. The neuters olov and ola, either alone or combined with 
various particles, and used in a conjunctive or adverbial sense, 
are, no doubt, elliptical expressions similar to those noticed above, 
though it may be difficult to resolve many of them in a satisfac- 
tory manner. The ordinary meaning of these words will be 
found in the Lexicons. 

4 1 8 — Note. The observations which have been made on the con- 
struction of the related adjectives rote? or toaovxoq — oloq, are applica- 
ble, almost without exception, to roaoq or roaovroq — baoq ; observing 
that the former relates to the quality of objects, the latter to their 
number or quantity. The same also may be said of xtjXUoq — tjlixoq, of 
such an age or rise. 



§137. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

419. — The nominative case is used — 

1st. To express the subject of a proposition. 
2d. In apposition with another substantive in the nomina- 
tive (365), or predicated of it (436, 438). 



224 VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. §138. 

3d. In exclamations ; as, oo dvordXcuva eyco ! wretched 
me! 

4th. Absolutely, or without dependence on any word in the 
sentence ('7*72); as, noXX)\ ydq i\ Croatia ovaa, ov 
Ttddfjg iatai noXecog vrtods^ao'd'ai (avzijv), for the army 
being numerous, it will not be in the power of the whole 
state to accommodate them. Or without a participle, by 
pleonasm before an affirmation ; as, 6 Mcovgtjq ovx oi- 
dctfAEV ri yiyovev avicp, this Moses, we know not what 
has become of him. 



§ 138. A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 

420. — Rule IV. A verb agrees with its nomi- 
native in number and person ; as, 

iyco yqaycoj I write, 

vfieig tvTTrsre, ye strike. 

ocp&alfiG) XdpTzetov, his eyes shine. 

421 — Bern. The subject of a finite verb, if a noun or pronoun, or 
adjective used as a noun, is put in the nominative. The subject may 
also be an infinitive mood (719), or part of a sentence ; and to all these 
this rule applies. 

422. — Obs. 1. The nominative of the first and of the second 
person is generally omitted, being obvious from the termination 
of the verb ; also of the third person, when it may be readily 
supplied from the context ; as, Xs'yovat,, they say. 

423. — Obs. 2. The subject is also omitted, when the verb ex- 
presses an action usually performed by that subject ; as, calm- 
t,si> the trumpeter sounds ; sx}]qv£s, the herald proclaimed ; or 
when it expresses an operation of nature ; as, vet, it rains ; fioov- 
ta, it thunders. 

424. — Obs. 3. Impersonal verbs are usually considered as 
without a nominative ; still they will generally be found to bear 
a relation to some circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, 
or infinitive mood, similar to that between a verb and its nomi- 
native ; as, £%eoti fiQi dndvai, it is lawful for me to depart, i. e. 
to depart is lawful for me ; %oy as noieiVy it behoves you to do 
it, i.e. to do it behoves you. Lat. Gr. 307. 

Note. — On the other hand, the subject or nominative is some- 
times expressed, and the verb — usually some part of the verb 
ewcu — is omitted ; as, "EXXqv iym, I (am) a Greek, 



§139. VEEB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 225 

§ 139. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Agreement in number. 

425. — Rule 1. A neuter plural commonly lias 
verb in the singular ; as, 

Jcoa TQt'xet, animals run. 

426. — Obs. 1. This construction is more common with the 
Attic than with the Ionic and Doric writers. But with all, there 
are many exceptions, especially when the neuter plural signifies 
persons or animals ; as, roadds td'vtj taiQurtvov, so many na- 
tions went to war. Homer joins a singular and a plural verb 
with the same nominative. Odyss. u. 43. So Xen. Mem. 
aarga avsyrjvav a tjuiv rug cogag 7?jg vvxzbg iuyavi^ei, 
the stars shone fokth, which shew to us the hours of t/ie 
night. 

427. — Obs. 2. Sometimes, also, masculine and feminine nouns 
in the dual and plural have a verb in the singular; as, ovx 
sotIv otrutg ttftivoptcu, there are none who abstain, 
avail at op^a) utKttov, the voice of melody sounds. 

428. — Rule 2. Two or more substantives sin 
gular, taken together, have a verb in the plural ; 
taken separately, the verb must be in the singu- 
lar ; as, 

Together, along 8e xai cpofiog suyv- Shame and fear are na- 
roi eiai av&guncp, tural to man. 

Separately, col yag edcoxs vixrp> Ztvg For Jupiter and Apollo 
xai JlnolXwVy gave you the victory. 

429. — Obs. 3. To both parts of this rule, however, and espe- 
cially to the first, there are not a few exceptions ; for it often 
happens that when two or more nouns have a common verb, it 
agrees with one of them, and most commonly the one next it. 
Also, if the two nouns are of similar signification, they are in 
construction considered as one, and the verb follows in the sin- 
gular ; as, £oi ft ini TokyLatta xagolri xai ftvpog, let your 
heart and soul dare. 

430. — Obs. 4. A substantive in the singular, connected with 
other words as the subject of a verb, conveying the idea of plu- 
rality, has the verb in the plural ; as, 'Pea naqalafiovca xai 



226 VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. § 139. 

tovg Koqvfiavzag Tt^mokovaiv, Rhea, having taken with her also 
the Corybantes, wandered about So in Latin ; as, Juba cum 
Labieno capti in potestatem Ccesaris venissent. Lat. Gr. 314. 

431.— Rule 3. A noun of multitude expressing 
many as one whole has a verb in the singular ; as, 
eZsto Xaog, the people sat down. 

432. — But when it expresses many as individu- 
als, the verb must be plural ; as, 

rjQatrjGav avzbv to 7zl?j&og, the multitude asked him. 

433. — Obs. 5. To both parts of this rule there are also ex- 
ceptions, and in some cases it seems indifferent whether the verb 
be in the singular or plural ; sometimes both are joined with the 
same nominative ; as, s£eto Xaog, ignrvd-naav 8s xa&tdoag, 
the people sat down and kept their seats. 

434. — Rule 4. A dual nominative may have a 
plural verb ; as, 

apcpco eleyov, both spake ; and a plural nominative, limited to 
two, may have a verb in the dual. 

II. Agreement in Person. 

435. — Rule 5. When two or more nominatives are of differ- 
ent persons, the verb takes the first person rather than the sec- 
ond, and the second rather than the third ; as, iya xal ov sitto- 
per, you and I spoke. 

To this rule there are many exceptions. 

III. The Nominative after the Verb. 

436. — Rule 6. Any verb may have the same 

case after it as before it when both words refer to 

the same thing ; as, 

vpeTg laze to ycog rov xoafiov, Ye are the -light of the world 

437. — Rem. The nominative before is the subject, the nominative after 
the predicate — the verb is the copula, and is either a substantive or intran 
sitive verb, or a passive verb of naming — from its use called copulative. 

438. — Obs. 6. This rule applies to the infinitive whatever bo 
the case of its subject ; also to participles, 738 and 752. 



§ 140. GOVERNMENT. 227 

439. — Obs. 7. When the predicate is an adjective or a parti- 
ciple, without a substantive, it agrees with the surjjject before the 
verb, by R. II : — Except as noticed, 378. 

440. — Obs. 8. In this construction, the verb usually agrees 
with the subject ; sometimes, however, it agrees with the predi- 
cate; as, Jjcav ds Gtddioi oxroo to fiezai%[uov avTtm; the space 
between them was eight stadia. So also when the copula is a 
participle ; as, he usually let go, tovg (nyiara izt i uaQTi l v.6xag — 
lieyiGtnv de ovcav (for ovzug) filafii]v nofocog, the greatest 
offenders being (or who are) the greatest injury to the state. 



§140. II. GOVERNMENT. 

441. — Government is the power which oue word has over 
another depending upon it, requiring it to be put in a certaiD 
case, mood, or tense. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES. 
442. — The construction of the oblique cases depends in gen- 
eral upon the following principles ; viz. 

1. The Genitive expresses that from which any thing pro- 
ceeds, originates, or begins ; or to which it belongs, as expn 

by the English words of, from, in regard of, in respect of, &c. 
viz. as cause or origin. 

2. The Dative is the case of acquisition, and denotes that to 
which any thing is added, or to or for which it is done ; hence 
the end or remote object to which any action tends. It is also 
used to express the cause, instrument, or means, by which a thing 
is done, in which sense it usually depends on a preposition ex- 
pressed or understood. 

3. The Accusative expresses the immediate object on which the 
action or influence of a transitive active verb terminates ; or ot 
motion or tendency to, expressed by a preposition. 

4. The action of a verb may be considered in reference either, 
1. to its immediate object, i.e. to that on which its action is im- 
mediately exerted, and which is always governed in the accusa- 
tive ; as, didovcu l\iavxbv y to give myself ; or, 2. to a remote ob- 
ject (i. e. to one which is not acted upon by the verb, but is 
merely that to which the action is related in the manner ex- 
pressed by the case), and is put in the genitive, or dative, or ac- 
cusative, either after the accusative with a transitive active verb, 
or without an accusative after an intransitive verb; as, unuXkat l 



228 THE GENITIVE. §141. 

tew nva voaov, to free one from disease ; didovai ifiavrbv trj 
nokn, to give myself to the state ; (peidsa&cu zav igupcov, to spare 
the kids; fioq&etv rfj nazQidi, to aid (i.e. to render assistance to) 
my country. 



§141. THE GENITIVE. 

443. — The Genitive is in extensive use in the Greek lan- 
guage, being used in many cases in which the ablative is used 
in Latin. Its primary, as well as its general and leading idea, is 
that of separation or abstraction, going forth from, or out of, ori- 
gin, cause. So that the meaning of the words of, out of, from, 
is implied in the case itself. 

The numerous and diversified uses of this ease are reduced by Mat- 
thise to the following heads : 

444 — I. In Greek, words of all kinds may be followed by other 
words in the genitive, when the latter class limits, and shews in what 
respect the meaning of the former is to be taken. When used for this 
purpose, they may usually be rendered by such phrases as " with re- 
spect to" " in respect of ;" thus, 

1. With verbs ; as, wq nodwv (7/ov, as fast as they could run, lit. 
as they had themselves with respect to their feet ; xaAwq tyiw ui&rjq y 
to have one's self well with respect to intoxication; ayaXXiG&ai i Ini- 
tio q, to be deceived with respect to hope ; xareaycc xr\q xftpaAijq, I am 
broken with respect to my head, i. e. / have broken my head. 

2. With adjectives ; auyyvot/uow xwv av&QO)7tivo)v a/uaon] fid- 
twv, forgiving with respect to human errors; iyyvq rrjq no/.eoiq, 
near with respect to the citt ; yr\ nhia naxwv, a land full of (i.e. 
with respect to) evils ; iA,di,o)v TtuxQoq, greater than (L e. with re- 
spect to) his father. 

3. With all words which represent a situation or operation of the 
mind, which is directed to an object, but without affecting it ; such as 
verbs signifying to remember, to forget, to neglect, &c. ; and adjectives sig- 
nifying experienced, ignorant, desirous, &c. 

4. With all words which indicate fulness, defect, emptiness, and the 
like. Under this head fall adjectives signifying full, rich, empty, de- 
prived of, &q. : and adverbs denoting abundance, want, sufficiency, <fcc. 

5. To this principle must be referred the construction of the geni- 
tive with the comparative degree, 482 ; with all words denoting superi- 
ority, inferiority, and where a comparison is made with respect to the 
value of a thing ; as, a%t,oq rovxov, worthy of this, i. e. equal in value 
with respect to this ; or where the idea of difference is involved. 

6. When that with respect to which a thing is done may also be con- 
sidered the cause of its being done, the word expressing it is often put 
in the genitive, and may be rendered "on account of;" as, q>&ovuv 
ruvi aocpiaq,to envy one on account of wisdom. Hence it is used with 
verbs signifying to accuse, or criminate, to pray, to begin, &c. ; and also, 
without another word, in exclamations. 



§142. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 229 

445 — II. The genitive in Greek is used to express the relation of 
a whole to its parts ; i e. it is put partitively. Hence it is put with 
verbs of all kinds, even with those that govern the accusative, when the 
action does not refer to the whole, but to a part ; as, onrTjaat, xotojv, 
to roast some of the flesh ; iyo) oiSa r&v Efioiv fjJ.ixK>>T(ov, 1 know 
some of those of my age. Hence, also, it is put with verbs which sig- 
nify to share, to participate, <fcc. 

On this principle is founded, the construction of the genitive of the 
part affected, after verbs signifying to take, to seize, to touch, &c. Hence, 
also, it is put with the superlative degree,\o express the class of which 
that one, or those marked by the superlative, form a part. 

446 — IH. The genitive is used to mark the origin, or cause from 
which any thing proceeds ; and hence, the person or thing to which 
any thing belongs, whether it be a. property, or quality, habit, duty, <fcc. 
Hence, also, verbs govern the genitive, which express feelings and op- 
erations of the mind, which are the result of external impressions, or 
when they denote motions and actions in bodies which are the effects of 
the operation of other bodies. Thus, verbs which express the sensa- 
tions of hearing, tasting, touching, <fcc. as well as those which signify to 
admire, to care for, to desire, <fcc. are followed by the genitive of the ob- 
ject heard, tasted, touched, admired, or cared for, because it is viewed 
as the source, origin, or cause, of these sensations and operations. 
Hence, also, the common rules, that u verbs denoting possession, prop' 
erty, or duty, tkc. govern the genitive;" that "the material of which 
any thing is made is put in the genitive;" and that "one substantive 
governs another in the genitive." 

447 — IV. The genitive is also governed by certain prepositions, 
and by verbs compounded with prepositions ; that is to say, when the 
prepositions may be separated from the verb and placed before the 
genitive without altering the sense. 

448 — V. The genitive is used to determine place and time in an- 
swer to the question "where?" "when?" <fec. Hence the adverbs ov, 
Ttov, o7iov, where, which are, in fact, old genitives, and refer to part of 
place or time in general. 

To the general principles contained in these five heads, may be re- 
ferred all the cases which occur under all the following rule* for tho 
genitive. 



§ 142. I. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTAN 
TIVES. 

449. — Rule V. One substantive governs an- 
other in the genitive, when the latter substantive 
limits the signification of the former ; as, 

6 dear narriQ, the father of gods. 

ava£ avdQcUp, king of men. 

11 



2S0 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. § 142. 

450 — This rule is founded on the general principle mentioned 444 
and 446. In, the examples above, the general term 7iarr,o is restricted 
by the word 9-torv governed by it. It is not any father, nor the father 
of men, but of gods : so ava£, not any king, but, the king of men. 

When a noun is restricted by another of the same signification, it is 
put in the same case by Rule I. (365). 

451. — Obs. 1. The noun governing the genitive is frequently 
understood (367); viz: 1. after the article such words as vlog, 
prfTrjQ, xrvydzfjg, <fec. ; 5s, MiXziddqg 6 Kificavog (sup. viog), 
Miltiades, the son of Cimon ; zd zijg zvyijg (sup. dcogfjiiaza), 
the gifts of fortune. 2. OJxog or dapa, after a preposition; as, 
ig Tzazgog (sup. 5c5^a), to the house of her father; slg afiov 
{8oiiov\ to Hades; iv adov (d6[iq>), in Hades. 3. After the 
verbs i-ipi, ywofiai, v7zdQ%co, &c. See 491 and 446. 

452. — Obs. 2. When the noun in the genitive signifies a per- 
son, it may often be taken in an active or passive sense ; thus, /) 
yvmaig zov dsov, the knowledge of God. In this sentence, God 
may be either the subject or the object of the knowledge spoken 
of, i. e. the phrase may denote our knowledge of God, or his 
knowledge of us ; no&og vlov, generally (not the regret of thy 
son, viz. which he has, but) regret for thy son ; dvdgbg svfitveia 
zowvde, good will towards such a man. Lat. Gr. 334. 

453. — This passive sense of the genitive is more common 
when the governing noun is derived from a verb which usually 
governs the dative, and when the one substantive is in one sense 
the cause, and in another the object, of that which is expressed 
by the other substantive; as, vegzegcov dcog/jfxaza, offerings 
(not o/, but) to the dead; evypaza TlaXXddog , prayers to 
Pallas; q zgjv IlXazaisav imozgazeia, the march agaixst 
the Platjeans. 

454. — Nouns thus derived, however, are more frequently fol- 
lowed by the dative ; as, r\ Movascov doaig dv&goonoiGi, the 
gift of the Muses to men ; sometimes by the preposition Big with 
the accusative; as, #«c5j> slg dv&g(onovg doaig, 518. 

455. — 06s. 3. Many substantives derived from words which 
govern the genitive, are often followed by a genitive governed by 
the force of the primitive contained in the derivative ; thus, iltv- 
&egog novov (466), free from labour ; hence, ilsv&egia novov> 
freedom from labour; xgazeiv Tjdovcov (511), to be superior to 
pleasures ; iyxgazeia rjdovw-v, mastery over or moderation in 
pleasures ; dxqazeia qdovow, subjection to or want of moderation 
in pleasures ; emxovgnpa zijg %iovog, protection against the snow. 



§ 142. GENITIVE GOVERNED BV SUBSTANTIVES. 231 

456.— Obs. 4. Sometimes the genitive after a substantive is 
governed not so properly by the substantive as by a preposition 
understood. These generally express the material of which a 
thing is made, or the author or source from which it proceeds 
(617) ; as, attcpavog (i%) uv&e'fj.oov, a crown of flowers ; %a).xov 
aya7.ua (scil. ex), a helmet of brass ; niv&og (dnb) datuovcor, 
grief sent from the gods ; (vcp) "Hqag aXazuou, wanderings caused 
by Juno. 

Note. In this way, perhaps, the examples, Obs. 3 (455), may be re- 
solved ; as, iXw&fqia anb nuvuv. 

457. — Obs. 5. A noun in the genitive, after another of the 
same kind, denotes either the highest pre-eminence, or the lowest 
inferiority; as, fiaaiXu BaatXew, to the king of kings ; douXog 
SovlcoVf a slave of slaves. 

458. — Obs. 6. A number of substantives followed by the gen- 
itive of a noun, or by a possessive adjective formed from it, are 
often put, by a kind of circumlocution, for the noun itself. The 
chief of these are, fiia, *g, usvog, strength ; xijo, the heart ; 
q>6@og 3 fear ; tt&gag, tsXog, reXevnj, the end ; dt'uag, a body ; 
y.uoa, xun/jvor, xtquli], the head, Arc ; as, pia Kuuronog, for 
Kootcoq, Cantor ; $lr\ Hgaxhjeirj, for 'HoaxXr/g, IL rcules ; reXoe 
xhourov, for ifuvuzog, death ; JoxaCTtjg '/.una, for '/ouctOTt]. 

459. — Obs. 7. Sometimes one substantive governs two differ- 
ent genitives in different relations ; as, virsdws rcov 'Jcovcor rip 
iryepovfyv tov jiQog duQtinv n oXe ft ov, he assumed the leading 
of the Ionian's in the war against Darius* ; tuv olxeiwv 
TtQomiXaxlc&g tov yyoag, insults of relations to old age. 

460. — Obs. 8. The Attics use a noun in the genitive, preceded 
by a neuter article, for the noun itself; as, to t^ iv/r^ for « 
Tv%rj, fortune ; tcc twv papjjuncov (for oi fiaofiupoi) amotu 
?cm, the barbarians are not to be trusted. 



461. — Eule VI. An adjective or article in the 
neuter gender, without a substantive, governs the 
genitive ; as, 

to noXVov rrig 0*Q&ms}s* the greatest part of the army. 
to. Ttjg Tv^ng, the gifts of fortune. 

462. — Obs. 9. The adjective in the neuter gender is either it- 
self considered as a substantive (390), or as having a substantive 
understood, which is properly the governing word. 



232 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 143. 

463. — Rule VII. A substantive added to ano- 
ther, to express a quality or circumstance belong- 
ing to it, is put in the genitive ; as, 

avijQ iieyulrjg doeztjg, a man of great virtue. 

464. — Obs. 10. The substantive in the genitive has commonly 
an adjective with it, as in the example above, but sometimes not ; 
as, nolepog ovx onXcov alia danavng, a war, not of wea- 
pons, but OF MONEY. But, 

465. — Obs. 11. The substantive expressing the quality or cir- 
cumstance of another, is more commonly put in the accusative 
governed by xazd or did expressed or understood ; as, dvtjQ 
anovdaiog tbv zoonov, a man of ingenuous disposition. 



§ 143. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

466. — Rule VIII. Verbal adjectives, and such 
as signify an affection or operation of the mind, 
govern the genitive ; as, 

dv&QW7i(ov dtjlrjpcov, hurtful to men. 

€fi7teiQog ftovawjjg, skilled in music. 

467 — Rem. The principle on which this rule is founded is con- 
tained in 44.1 -1. 1, 2. But others suppose that the foundation of the 
principle, as well as of the rule, is to be sought in the ellipsis of a pre- 
position, such as TrtQi, which is sometimes expressed ; as, m^i rwr 
riyvotv inL(Txrjuo)v, skilled in the arts. However plausible this supposi- 
tion may be, it militates strongly against it that -we have the same 
rule in Latin in which there is no preposition that governs the geni- 
tive. The stronger probability is, that the rule in both languages is 
to be referred to the same general principle already mentioned. 

468. — Under this rule are comprehended, 

1. Adjectives denoting action or capacity, which are derived 
from verbs, or corresponding to them, especially those in zog t 
wog, and qQiog. 

2. Many adjectives compounded with a privative (327-1, 1st) ; 
as, d&wzog xal dvfjxoog d.7idvzcQv y without seeing or hearing of 
any thing. 

3. Participles used in an adjective sense, especially among 



§ 143. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 233 

the poets ; as, necpvyfjisvog at&lwv, free from troubles ; otcovcov 
tidcog, skilled in augury. 

Note. These, however, are often followed by the accusative ; as, 
dSoK a&ffitaTia, skilled in wickedness. 

4. Adjectives expressing a state or operation of mind ; as, de- 
sire, aversion, care, knowledge, ignorance, memory, forgetfalness, 
profusion, parsimony, and the like. 

5. Adjectives derived from, or of a similar signification with 
verbs which govern the genitive ; as, snixovoog ipv%ovg, gxotov, 
x. z. X. serviceable against cold, darkness, (fee. 



469. — Rule IX. Adjectives signifying plenty 
or want, &c., govern the genitive (444-4) ; as, 

fisaibg ftoovfiov, full of confusion. 

iotjpog dvdpcov, destitute of men. 

470. — Under this rule are comprehended, 

1. Adjectives of fulness, plenty, and want; value, dignity, 
worth, and the contrary. 

2. Adjectives expressive of power, eminence, su^?eriority, and 
their opposites ; also, of participation, diversity, separation, pecu- 
liarity, or property, and the like. 

3. Adjectives followed by the genitive of the cause ; as, a&Xibg 
tijg rvfj\g y miserable on account of fortune. 

471. — Note. Adjectives of plenty and want sometimes govern the 
dative; as, oupvn,6<; ntjlovq, abounding i?i fruits 



472. — Rule X. Partitives, and words placed 
partitively, comparatives, superlatives, interroga- 
tives, indefinites, and some numerals, govern the 
genitive plural ; as, 

1. tcov av&QconcQv ol fisv uogpo/, of the men some were wise, 

oi d 1 ovj others not. 

2. oi naXaioi rcov 7ioujrav f the ancient poets, 
o. h 7 cor nlnicov, one of the ships. 

4. TTQcorog Afhpumv, the first of the Athenians. 

5. o vecorsQog xoov adzlcfcor, the younger of the brothers. 

6. tx&usxog paoiXtw, most hated of kings. 



2M GENITIVE GOVEKNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 143. 

473. — Rem. For the principle of this rule, see 445. It ha9 also 
been supposed that the genitive under this rule is properly governed 
by ix or ano. The same remark made 467 is also applicable here, and 
for the same reason; viz. that the same rule holds in Latin, which has 
no preposition governing the genitive. 

474. — Obs. I. All words are denominated partitives which 
express a part of any number or class of objects, the whole being 
expressed by the noun following it in the genitive. 

475. — Obs. 2. The genitive after the partitive is sometimes 
governed by the preposition ix or e| ; as, i£ anaaddv tj xalkiOTn, 
the most beautiful of all : — and sometimes, instead of the geni- 
tive, there is found a preposition with another case ; as, xaXXtait] 
iv.tuXg yvvai^i, fairest among women ; so in Latin, justissimus 
in Teucris. Lat. Gr. 360. 

476. — Obs. 3. Instead of the genitive, the case of the partitive 
is sometimes used; as, rovg cpilovg rovg [isv anixzmt, 

ROME OF HIS FRIENDS he slew. 

477. — Obs. 4. The partitives rig and elg are sometimes 
omitted; as, ys'gco ooi gtoXiji> zav xa).Xiozcov (sc. pay), 1 
bring yo'u a very excellent robe; rj&ele zwv fievorzcov thai 
(sc. slg), he desired to be one of those who remained. On this 
principle is explained such phrases as iazl zav aiGyocov (sc. elg), 
for iazi ala^Qog, he is base (literally a one of the base "). 

478. — Obs. 5. Partitives agree in gender with the substantives 
which follow in the genitive. When two substantives follow in 
the genitive, the partitives, &c. commonly agree with the former, 
but sometimes with the latter. 

479. — Obs. 6. Collective nouns are governed by partitives in 
the genitive singular. 

480. — Obs. 7. Adjectives in the positive form, but conveying 
a superlative sense, on the principle of this rule govern the geni- 
tive plural ; as, e£o%og tzccvzcov, the most excellent of all ; dice 
Qeacov, goddess of goddesses (i. e. supreme goddtss) ; 8ia yvrai- 
xg>v, most excellent of women. /1aiu6vi£ avbotiv, Good sir. Also 
nouns compounded with a in a privative sense ; as, a^alxog aam- 
dcov, unarmed with brazen shields. 

481. — Obs. 8. On a similar principle an adjective in the geni- 
tive plural sometimes accompanies substantives of all kinds, in 
order to mark the class to which the person or tiling mentioned 
belongs; as, zgo%og T<av xEQUfieixayv, a wheel of the class 
of the earthen, i. e. an earthen wheel ; ntkexvg zojv vavnr,yi- 
xmv, an axe of those belonging to ship-builders, i. e. a ship 
builder's axe. 



§ 113. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 235 

482. — Rule XL The comparative degree, with- 
out a conjunction, governs the genitive ; as, 

yXvxicw pthrog, sweeter than honey. 

XQtiGGcov or/.TiQfxov q: ftovog, envy is stronger than pity. 

483. — Rem. The principle of this rule is stated 444-5. There i* 
not the same objection to the usual explanation of this rule, by supply- 
ing the preposition nyo or dvri, that is stated 467. Yet the analogy of 
the cases already referred to are opposed to this explanation, and seem 
to render it more proper to refer to the general principle above stated. 
At the same time it must be noticed, that after the comparative aegree 
the genitive is sometimes governed by one of these prepositions ex- 
pressed ; as, ot<nv 7] xvQctvvh; nq 6 i).ti'&t(jitj(; fjv da naaxox i - 
(jov, to whom tyranny was more agreeable than liberty; but this will 
not decide in favour of explaining the construction under this rule by 
supplying the' preposition, any more than it did in the other, 475. 

484. — Obs. 9. The conjunction ;/, than, after the comparative 
is usually followed by the same case that precedes it; as, in 
avdoag noXv duniovug >/ Zxv&ag, against men much braver 
than the Scythians. Sometimes, however, it is followed by the 
nominative, it* eipi, or another word, can be supplied ; as, roig 
VEWTt'nmg /) f/oj, to those younger than I am. 

485. — Obs. 10. After the comparative, r\ is sometimes followed 
by an infinitive with or without (og or (ocjte ; as, xuxa [ieiX<o ?j 
ojrrrf (huy.h'.itiVj evils too great to excite my tears ; voatjfia, 
fiei^or /} cfi-'ntn'y affliction too great to bear. 

486. — Obs. 11. The comparative without ?j (than) is followed 
by the genitive according to the rule ; as, yonva yXvAEQcozEga 
[tehxiiQM, a voice sweeter than honey-comb. 

487. — Obs. 12. The genitives toviov and ov, governed by a 
comparative, are often followed by an explanation with jj ; as, 
ovx eon Tovdt nam xdlhov yt'gag, q naiohg ia&Xov xdya&ov 
neqv/.t'vai, there is no greater honour to children than this (viz. 
than), to be descended from a brave and virtuous father. 

488. — 06s. 13. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence 
being equivalent to a noun (714), is sometimes governed in the 
genitive by a comparative; as, to ajvXd^ai t aya&ct rov 
xTnadaftai lalenazEoov iari, to preserve property is 

MORE DIFFICULT THAN TO GAIN IT. 

489. — 06s. 14. Words which imply a comparison, govern the 
genitive on the same principle; these are 

1st. Such words as express difference ; as, nsoiGGog, dsvTEoog, 
voiEQog ; also, didqjonog, tTEgog, d)log, dXXolog, aXX6> 
TQiog. 



236 GENITIVE GOVEKNED BY VEKBS. § 144 

2d. Multiplicative numbers ; as, oinXdaiog, rginXdmog ; as, 
omXdaiov dei dxovEiv rov Xeyeiv, one should hear 

TWICE AS MUCH AS HE SPEAKS. 

490. — Obs. 15. The superlative is sometimes used for the com- 
parative, and is then subject to the same rules; as, (with the con- 
junction) Xopazov rj to QXeygag nediov, better than the plain of 
Phlegm ; (without the conjunction) asio 6^ ovzig dvrjg fiaxdg* 
razog, no man is happier than you. 



§ 144. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

491. — Rule XII. The person or thing to which 
any thing belongs, is put in the genitive after ti/ui, 

sari lov fictGiXsag, it belongs to the king, 

thai savrov, to be his own (master). 

Tov xaXwg TtoXsfieTv to i&t- alacrity is necessary to fight 
Xeiv ion', well ; i. e. belongs to it. 

492 — Rem. For the principle of this rale, see 446. Consistently 
with this, in constructions of this kind, a substantive may be considered 
as understood, which is the governing word. Lat. Gr. 365. 

493. — Obs. 1. Yet here also we have the genitive governed 
directly by a preposition expressed, indicating that from which 
the quality, &c. proceeds ; as, ova tan 7igbg noXmg, it is not 
proper for the state ; lit. it is not a thing proceeding from the 
state. On this principle are to be explained such sentences as 
the following ; ovx dyafiai row dvdgbg agist log, I do not 
approve this in a prince; i. e. ngbg dvdgog, &c.from a prince ; 
rovto inaivm AyvaiXdov, I commend this in Agesilaus ; tov- 
to [isficpovzai \idXiGxa ijpcov, this they blame chiefiy in us. 



494. — Kule XIII. Verbs expressing the opera- 
tion of the senses, govern the genitive ; as, 

xXv&i fiev, hear me. 

[it} [iov dntov, touch me not. 

495. — Exc. 1. Verbs of seeing govern the accusative; as, 
Oeov bipovrai, they shall see God. 



§144. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 237 

496. — Exc. 2. In the Attic dialect, all verbs of sense govern 
the accusative ; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the other 
dialects ; as, qxovaa qxovfjv, I heard a voice ; GnXayyva maaav- 
to, they tasted the entrails. 

497. — Obs. 2. The principle on which verbs under this rule, 
and some of those that follow, govern the genitive, is, that the 
word in the genitive, following the verb, expresses that which is 
viewed as the origin or cause, in some way or other, of the sensa- 
tion, or of the act or state expressed by the verb, 446. 

498 — Rem. If, after verbs which usually govern the genitive, the 
genitive is governed by a preposition interposed, the preposition gener- 
ally corresponds to the idea of origin or cause, <fcc. expressed by the 
genitive (as, ano, 7r^6<?, and the like) ; and thus, instead of militating 
against the principles stated above, it adds its own force to that of the 
genitive, giving emphasis and distinction to the sentence. But to sup- 
pose from this, that when the genitive follows a verb, it is always gov- 
erned by a substantive or preposition understood, besides being wholly 
unnecessary on the principles already stated, serves only to destroy 
the original and characteristic simplicity of the language, and to render 
its construction perplexed and intricate. 



499. — Rule XIV. Verbs signifying an opera- 
tion of the mind, govern the genitive ; as, 

■Oavfia^o) gov, I admire you. 

apt'leig t<av cpilwv, you neglect your friends. 

500 — Rem. Verbs which come under this rule govern the genitive 
on the principles stated, 444-3 and 446. Examples occur also in Latin ; 
see Lat. Gr. 369. It applies generally to verbs which signify 

1. To pity, to spare, to care for, or neglect ; as, imiieXeus&ou, 
yoornXtiv, aXeyi^Bip, (tfieXeiv, okiyoQtir. 

2. To remember or forget; as, fivaa&ai, fivrjfioveveiv, Xav&d- 
vea&eu, <fec. with their compounds. But these frequently 
govern the accusative. 

3. To consider, to reflect, to perceive, or understand ; these 
also govern the accusative. 

4. To admire, to aim at, to desire or to loathe, to revere or to 
despise. 

501. — Obs. 3. Many of these verbs used transitively (i.e. 
signifying to cause the operation of mind they express), govern 
the accusative of the person with the genitive of the object ; as, 
wiifivtjaev i naroog, he put him in mind of his father ; tyevaa? 
fit svdaifiovtag, you have caused me to taste of happiness. Verba 

11* 



238 GENITIVE GOVEKNED BY VERBS. § 144. 

thus used are sometimes denominated causative or incentive verbs, 
and hence the — 

502. — Rule. Causative verbs govern the accu- 
sative of the person with the genitive of the thing. 



503. — Rule XV. Transitive verbs govern the 
genitive when they refer to a part only, and not 
to the whole of the object ; as, 

ems rov vdarog, he drank of the water. 

504. — This construction depends on the principle stated, 445, or we 
may consider the expression elliptical, and supply some such word aa 
fti^oq, a part, or xi, some, as the direct object of the verb, and that which 
governs the genitive according to Rules V. and VL 

505. — To this rule belong more especially such verbs as sig- 
nify, 

1. To share, participate, or impart, which, with the genitive 
of the thing, frequently govern the dative of the person to 
whom it is imparted ; as, fiszadidoofii rep ddeXcpcp zav 
XQTjfJiazmv, I share the property with my brother. 

2. To receive, obtain, or enjoy ; as, Tijijjg &ays, he gained 
honour ; iav Xafafuv cxoXrjg, if we get leisure. 

3. Verbs signifying to take, to seize, and their contraries ; to 
touch, or to carry, especially in the middle voice, with the 
accusative of the whole, govern the genitive of the part af- 
fected ; ildfiovzo tqg ^avng tbv Ogovznv, they seized 

Orontes by the girdle. 
506. — Exc. Some verbs, such as Xaftfidvofiai, fittr/co, xh;go- 
vofieoo, Xayidvm, zvy%dvG> y sometimes govern the accusative of 
the thing ; xXngovofiico with the accusative of the thing, governs 
also the genitive of the person from whom it is received ; as, 
ixXngovopvae rov nargog id xz/jfiaza, he inherited his posses- 
sions from his father ; sometimes it governs the genitive of both. 



507. — Rule XVI. Verbs of plenty or want, fill- 
ing or depriving, separation or distance, govern 
the genitive (444-4) ; as, 

evTZOQEi iQijiidtaVj he abounds in riches. 

%gvaov vrjncdo&co vya, let him fill his ship with gold, 

dsia&ui XQ-qimxcov, to be in want of money. 



§ 144. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 239 

508. — Under this rule there may be comprehended verba 
which express the general idea of separation, or which signify — 

1. To beg or entreat ; as, deofiai gov, I beg of you. 

2. To bereave or deprive ; as, GTEQtco, a7Z0GT£Qe(o. 

3. To deliver, loose, or set free ; as, iXevdeooco, Xvm, dnaX- 
Xclggoo. 

4. To escape ; as, ixcptvyca, dXvGxco. 

5 To keep off, to hinder, or prevent, to desist ; as, xwXvw, 
Fonztvco, t/co (scil. tivu nvog), efoyouui, tbo. 

6. 7b rf//f?r /row-, to &e distant, to abstain ; as, oVi^ca, 
antXQjy SiaXXuzzw, diaytoco, unr/o^ai. But some verbs 
of differing govern also the dative ; as, 8iacp£Q(o ooi, I 
differ from you. 

7. To separate, repel, or drive away ; as, %oqi±co, SioqiLoj, 
«/iwa), aytiQW, dicoxco, &c. 

8. To make way for, or retire from, to resign ; as, Wxco, 
VTZOxwQta), vnaym, Gvy^oiQta). 

9. To err, to cause to err ; v7i07zXavdofia( y dnorvyydLvo\nm, 

(iflCiQTUICO, 7zXaid(0. 

10. To cense, to cause to cease ; as, navco, navo^ica, P.//j'co, <fec. 

11. To i' ustrate, or disap}X)int ; as, \pev8ofiai, moum, 
ocpuXXofiai, <fec. 

509. — Obs. 5. Many of these are transitive; and with the 
genitive of the remote object govern the accusative of the direct 
object ; thus, under No. 3, as vovtf iXev&soo) (povov, I clear you 
of this murder ; dq>aiQ£iG&at, to deprive, sometimes governs the 
accusative and genitive, sometimes two accusatives, and some- 
times the accusative and dative. 

510. — Obs. 6. The genitive after these verbs, whether transi- 
tive or intransitive, is sometimes governed by a preposition inter- 
vening, the effect of which is, to give emphasis to the expression ; 
as, iXevdepwoag tijv 'EXXdda dnb Mtficov, having liberated Greece 
from the Medes, 498. 



511. — Rule XVII. Verbs of ruling, presiding 
ove?\ excelling, and the contrary, govern the geni- 
tive (444-5) ; as, 

noXXmv e&vcov do'tfiv, to rule over many nations. 

zmv ngayfjidTcov imoTazeZv, to have the superintendence of affairs. 



240 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 144. 

512. — The verbs which come under this rule are those which 
signify, 

1. To rule; as, oqx 03 * xq&ivco, oeono^G), dvvaozevw, i%ov- 
(Tta^co, av&evzs(o, xazaxvgievto. 

2. To reign ; as, zvgavvevw, fiaaitevco, dvdaaco. 

3. To lead ; as, rjyt'ofiai? iffEfiovevo), czgazyyta). 

4. To preside over ; as, imazaztco. 

5. To survive, or to be over ; as, 7iegUifu. 

6. To surpass, or excel ; as, Tzgrnzeva, vnegfiaivco, mqi$a).\o3, 

diaCptQG), TZEQiyiVOfJLCU. 

7. To begin, i. e. to be first, to lead the way ; as, dgxofxai ; so 

OQ%(0, V7ld.QXCO, XaZUQ%G). 

8. The contrary are such as signify to be ruled, led, presided 
over, <fec. ; to obey, to be inferior to, to be overcome. 

513. — Obs. 1. Some verbs govern the genitive by the force 
of a noun implied in them ; thus, zvgavveveiv is equivalent to 
tvgavvog slvai ; and hence izvgdvveve Kogiv&ov, he was king of 
Corinth, is equivalent to zvgavvog ?jv Kogiv&ov. 

514. — Obs. 8. Many verbs under this rule sometimes govern 
the dative; as, avaaaca, Gypaivco, xgazsco, jjysofiaij 7]ye[iovev(o t 
ag%n : and sometimes the accusative. 



515. — Rule XVIII. Verbs of buying, selling, 
estimating, and the like, govern the genitive of 
the price (648) ; as, 

cwTjodfinv zovzo ne'vzs dgaxiicov, I bought this for five 

DRACHMAE. 

z&v 7Zov(qv TicoXovaiv TjfiTv ndvza zdyd&a ol &eoi, the 

gods sell every good thing to us for labour. 
d^iovzai di7t).tjg zifiijg, he is thought worthy of double 

HONOUR. 

516. — Rem. The genitive in this construction is properly 
governed by dvzi understood, sometimes expressed. The price 
is sometimes put in the dative with the preposition im t and some- 
times in the accusative with the preposition ngog. 649. 

N. B. — For the construction of the genitive with the accusa- 
tive, see §151; also, for the genitive governed by adverbs, see 
§164, 165; by prepositions, § 168, and as used to express cer- 
tain circumstances, § 156, 157, and from § 160 to § 163. 



§ 145, 146. DATIVE AFTER SUBSTANTIVES. 241 

§145. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 

517. — The dative has, in general, two significations : 

1. It is used to express the remote object to which any quality or 
action, or any state or condition of things tends, or to which it refers. 
This tendency is usually expressed in English by the words to or for. 
As thus used, it corresponds to the dative in Latin, and is subject to 
nearly the same rules. 

Bern, To this general character of the dative may be referred a use 
of this case common in the best Greek writers, when the dative of the 
person to whom the thing spoken of may, in some way or other, be in- 
teresting, is thrown in, without any dependence for its construction 
on any word in the sentence, and when the sentence as regards syntax 
is complete without it. In such cases the dative is said to be redundant. 
But though it is so in respect of construction, it is not so in respect of 
effect, as it imparts a touch of feeling and sentiment easily felt, but not 
so easy to express in a translation. Thus, tj ni'irqa la at noitlv o,ti> av 
fiovlji, iv avrfi /ttaxdou; ^<j (Plat. Lys.), thy mother permits thee to do 
whatever thou p'leasest, in order that thou mayest be happy (to her). The 
avrr[ is added with reference to the feelings of the mother. The datives 
fioi and aoi are very often used in this way. Thus, Oedip. Tyr. 8. rivaq 
noO- Styac rdafit not &oa.ttrt; where ftoi intimates the mournful in- 
terest the good king felt in the scene before him. In Xen. Cyr. Cyrus 
addressing his mother, says, ol^ai aoi> hubovq — via^chv Ac. / have no 
doubt that I will easily surpass these; where aoi intimates the delight- 
ful interest an affectionate mother might be supposed to feel in the 
event anticipated. So in Latin, Quo tantum mihi dexter abis, Virg. 
jEneid V. 162. Lat. (Jr. 377-3. 

2. It is used to express that with which any thing is connected as an 
accompaniment, cause, instrument, manner, means, or end. This connec- 
tion is usually expressed in English by such words as with, by, from, in, 
for, or on account of. Used in this way, it corresponds to the ablative 
in Latin, both in meaning and construction. 



§ 146. THE DATIVE AFTER SUBSTANTIVES. 

518. — Rule XIX. Substantives derived from 
verbs which govern the dative, sometimes govern 
the dative also ; as, 

17 rov &eov dooig vfiiv, the gift of God to you, 

tj iv rco no"ki\m xolg tpikoig £ojJ- the assistance of (i. e. rendered 

duo, to) friends in war. 

ig aviikoyiav tolg ^vfifidxoig, for the contradiction of your 

allies : — 
Because didwfu? fiorftim, and avriXtyco, govern the dative. 



242 DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 147 

519. — Obs. 1. The dative often follows a substantive in the 
sense of the genitive, for which construction, with examples, see 
533. 

520. — Obs. 2. The dative sometimes depends on an adjective 
and substantive joined together, but chiefly on account of the 
adjective ; as, xXeivbv dalog natgi, illustrious offspring to Hue 
father. 

521. — Obs. 3. The dative sometimes follows a substantive, 
not, however, as implying possession, but where the idea of adap- 
tation or design is implied ; as, %£qg\v Tiovog, labour for the 
hands ; i. e. adapted for, designed for, suited to. 

522. — Obs. 4. The dative is also put with substantives to ex- 
press the idea of companionship, being governed probably by 
6vv or biioicog understood ; as, (ov) vntv&vvog el zoig aXXoig, 
you are responsible, as well as (or equally with) the rest. 



§ 147. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

523.— Rule XX. Adjectives signifying profit 
or disprofit, likeness or unlikeness, govern the da- 
tive ; as, 

cocpthpog zrj nolsi, profitable to the state. 

6[AOiog zcp TiazQit like his father. 

524. — The dative after such adjectives, expresses the object to 
which the quality expressed by the adjective refers ; and hence, 
all adjectives in which such a reference is involved, are followed 
by the dative of the object to which they relate. In this class, 
besides those mentioned in the rule, may be reckoned, 
1st. Adjectives signifying usefulness, friendliness, equality, suita- 
bleness, resemblance, ease, fitness, agreement, and the like, 
with theii contraries. Hence, 6 avzog, the same, and some- 
times eig, one, and zoiovzog, such, are followed by the da- 
tive ; as, za avzcc (zavza) noLGyos aoi y I suffer the same 
things with you — (so in Latin, Invitum qui servat, idem 
facit occtdenti. Hor. He who preserves a man against hu 
will, acts the same part with the man who kills him) ; 
og ipoi p tag iyevez 3 ix nqzegog, who was of the 
same (of one) mother with me ; Xoyovg zq> — zoiovzovg 
Xeyew, to speak such words as he would. 



§ 147. DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 243 

Exc. Adjectives signifying likeness, equality, &e. are sometimes fol- 
lowed b} r the object of comparison, not in the dative, but in the same 
case with the adjective, and connected with it by_ the conjunction y.ai ; 
as, oiToq yi 6 '/.oyoq iiioiyt doxtZ civ (tuoioq ilv?Li, v. oil 7i() ox (Qoq 
(instead of dvat, roi n^oriqa)), this argument would seem to me at least 
to be like tue formeb. So also the nominative is used after the adverbs 
Ofiolotq, io~o)q, y.ard ravxd; as, ov/ b/xoio)q 7ii7ioir\%aai> xat "0 ut] Q oq, 
they have not done like Homer ; xard ravrcc oi>roq rjxfjO~f xctl xi&ci- 
qa,he sounded just as a harp. These constructions are probably to be 
resolved thus : oivoq yt 6 Xoyoq y.al nqortfjoq d'oxiZ, <fcc. ; ovroq xou 

2d. Adjectives compounded with o"w, opov, and perd, signifying 
with ; as, ovvzooopog, opogog, [itraiztog tivi, <fcc. ; — yet 
sometimes these govern the genitive. 
3d. Some adjectives derived from verbs which govern the da- 
tive, govern the dative also ; as, axoXov&og, axolovftrjr/.og, 
diddo%og. 
525. — Obs. 1. There are many adjectives which govern either 
the genitive or dative ; as, opoiog, like ; "oog, equal ; bfMOWftog, 
of the same name ; b^onuTgiog, of the same father ; Ofiofitfiniog, 
of the same mother ; cvviooyog, educated together ; awtj-dyg, 
familiar ; inooooTzog, of the same force ; xowog, common ; 
7rXov(jtog, u<j rung, rich ; tvnonog, abundant ; ivdetjg y poor ; tro- 
%og, vnodixog, wievdvpog, exposed, obnoxious ; oixtiog, familiar ; 
aviog, to be sold ; tiov).og, a slave ; ilevtitnog, free ; as, bftoiog 
rov natQog, or to) kutqi, like his father ; bpcovvfiog tov 7TUTQog y 
or to) naTQi, of the same name with his father. 

526. — Obs. 2. It has been observed (202, Obs. 1), that the ver- 
bal adjectives in Tog and Tt'og have a passive signification corres- 
ponding nearly to the Latin verbals in bilis and dus. Their con- 
struction, when thus used, is also similar ; and hence the following 



52 7. — Special Kule I. Verbals in rog and 
rs og, signifying passively, govern the dative of the 
doer ; as, 

tovto ov qvtov £gti fioi, this is not fit 'o be spoken by me. 
tj noXig aqjeltjTta aol Igti, the city ought to be served by thee. 

528. — Bern. The dative, however, in this construction, when 
it is general in its nature, is commonly omitted ; as, Tijir^ta ianv 
r\ aotTt], virtue must be honoured (viz. ijfjiiv, by us). 

529. — Obs. 3. Verbals in Tog, not signifying passively, govern 
the case of their own verbs ; as, si tqi ifio) tMq\ fiefinTog elui, 



244 DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 148. 

if I hlame my husband. Soph. Trach. ; dipavczog tyxovg, not 
having touched the sword. 202, Obs. 1. 



530. — Special Kule II. The neuter verbal in 
Twv, in the sense of the Latin gerund, with the 
dative of the doer, governs also the case of the 
verb from which it is derived ; as, 

zavza ndvza noir\z(ov \ioi y all these things must I do. 
zolg [lev v7ta,Qxov6i vofioig xqtjgteov, xaivovg ds eixij fty 

&8T80V, we should use the present laws, and not rashly enact 

NEW ONES. 

531. — Obs. 4. The doer is sometimes put in the accusative, in 
which case the necessity involved in the verbal is much weaker 
than in the ordinary construction ; as, ov 8ov).tvztov zovg vovv 
€%ovzag zolg xaxcog (fgovovoi, the prudent ought not to obey 
the unwise ; imcxenziov zd fisv avzov, zd ds yvvaixa (for 
avzcp, yvvouxi), some things are to be looked to by him, some by 
his wife. Both are united by Plato, Rep. 5, ovxovv xai r^iv 
vwozlov — ilm^orzag. 



§ 148. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

532. — Ktjle XXI. The verbs eifii, yivofiou, 
and vnaqxco, signifying to he, or to belong to, are 
followed by the dative of the possessor ; as, 

£<ra [iot xg/jfiaza, possessions are {belong) to me, i. e. / have pos- 
sessions. 

TslXcp 7iaidsg Jjaav xaXol xaya&oi, good children were to Tellus, 
i. e. Tellus had good children. 

533. — Obs. 1. On the principle of this rule may be explained 
the numerous instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which the 
dative signifying possession is used with another substantive appa- 
rently for the genitive. Thus, Te)1cq ol naideg is equivalent to 
TiXXov ol Ttaideg, the children of Tellus ; but the principle of 
construction is different. In the latter expression, the genitive is 
immediately governed by the other substantive, oi Tzaidsg, by 
Kule V., and signifies the children proceeding from, and belong- 



§ 148. DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 245 

ing to, Tellus. In the former, the dative is not governed by the 
substantive, but depends on some part of the substantive-verb 
understood ; thus, TtXXo) ol nutSeg (ol ovreg), Tello filii (qui 
sunt), the children which are to (belonging, or added to) Tellus ; 
or, without a periphrasis, " the children of Tellus" In this man- 
ner may be resolved all such expressions as ogge de ol, his two 
eyes ; bvydt^q te ol, her daughter ; to) ^vdoatfAOvi 6 tdcpog, the 
sepulchre of Andrcrmon, <fcc. Lat. Gr. 380, 381. 

534. — Hem. 1. This mode of expression with the dative is so nearly 
pynonymous with the more common construction with the genitive, 
that it appears often to have been a matter of indifference which of 
them was used; so much so, that a sentence sometimes begins with 
the one construction and ends with the other; thus, rj/.clv de xarfxld- 
(jQtj qilov rjTOQ duadvroiv q>&6yyov ti fictQvv; literally, the heart to 
DB ^READING his growling voice teas broken down. In this sentence du- 
aavTiov refers to rjulv as if it were tj/tow in the genitive. In the follow- 
ing sentence the order is reversed: r7 t q d' avrou Aj'*to qi/.ov j]to« ar\- 
fiara dvayvovay, her heart was moved when she recogxizkd me to- 
kens. Here dvayvovari in the dative, refers to rt^ in the genitive, as 
if it had been TJ t . 

535 — Rem. 2. In other tnstaneea id which the dative follows a sub- 
stantive apparently for the genitive, the idea of tendency toward* or of 
acquisition or addition, expressed in English by the preposition to or 
for, is generally apparent; as, nar^l xtpmohif qovov, an avenger of 
your father's murder; plainly an avenger of murder to or for your fa- 
ther. Indeed, the idea of possession, one of the meanings of the geni- 
tive, and of acquisition, the proper idea expressed by the dative, are 
so nearly allied as to render the use of the one case for the other not 
unnatural. 

536. — 06s. 2. When of two nouns in the dative, the one ex- 
68 a part of, or something belonging to, the other, the latter 
mux be rendered as the genitive, and the construction explained 
as in 06-9. 1 (533) ; yet it may be often better to consider them 
in apposition, both depending on the same governing word — the 
one term being added to limit or define more precisely the more 
general idea contained in the other ; thus, in the sentence, ovx 
^yuut'uvovi ijvdave \^v^.(p, the dative Jiya\ii\ivovi may be 
considered as regularly governed by ijvdave (548-1), and &vfioi 
added in apposition, more particularly defining the part affected ; 
as, he did not please Agamemnon ; viz. his mind (his feelings). 
This construction is imitated in Latin (Lat. Gr. 371). So also 
the following examples : 

xoGfior ov cjcpiv wnacJEV Zzvg ytret, an ornament which Jupi- 
ter gave to them, viz. their race. 
[laoTVQiei oV fi oi irj yvaun, (the oracle) bears witness for me, 

i. e. FOR MY OPINION. 



246 DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 148. 

537. — In the following sentence, instead of the second dative, 
we have the accusative with xazd; viz., yds 8s poi, xara #t\- 
\iqv dqiGrn yatvezo fiovtij, but this counsel seemed best to me in 
respect of my FEELINGS ; i. e. this counsel pleased me most. 

538. — Rem. 8. The correctness of this view of the construction is 
also rendered more probable from the fact, that the same apparent tau- 
tology is used when the word to be limited o" defined is connected with 
words which govern the accusative ; as, tl Si at yozvuq 'i/.zro Tiiv&oq; 
what grief has invaded your mind? Where, instead of saying that <ri is 
the accusative used for the genitive gov according to one mode of reso- 
lution, or that yqivaq is governed by zarcc understood according to 
another, it appears better to consider o~e as the general direct object, 
and <poevaq as in apposition, defining more precisely the part affected 
as in the above examples ; thus, " what grief has come upon you : viz. 
your mind." So in other instances ; as, 

Towaq de roo/ttoq vmjXv&f yvla ex a err or , trembling came upon 

the Trojans, every one in thetr limbs. 
Tor ye kiri barict &vfioq aytjvwQ, the noble soul left him; viz. 

HIS BODY. 

tqwibv rdavt viovq oq 7ZTjy.otq, he cut the wild fig tree, its 

YOUNG BOUGHS. 

539. — Obs. 3. The dative of some participles and adjectives 
is joined with the dative after the third person of eiui or yivofiou, 
for the verb itself ; these are such as fiovXouevog, ?;86fitvog, a%- 
&6(ievog, ngoadexofisvog, cixcov, aafievog, &c. ; as, e? ooi pov).o- 
fitvcp iati, for ei povly, if you are willing ; ovdl avzcp av.orxi §r, 
nor was he unwilling ; rjdofu'voimv rjfiiv ol ).6yoi yayavaoi, we 
were pleased with your discourse. This construction has been 
imitated in Latin; thus, Tacit. Agr. 18, quibus helium voltntibus 
erat. "who were inclined for war.-*' So Sallust, Jug. 100, uti 
militibus labos volentibus esset, " that the labour might be agree- 
able to the soldiers." See Lat. Gr. 396, Note. 

540. — Obs. 4. Somewhat similar to this is the construction of 
the dative with the participle or adjective, expressive of some 
feeling or emotion, after verbs signifying to come ; as, 

dafxevn 5' l(io\ ijX&e, he came to me delighted (scil. with his 
coming) ; i. e. / am delighted that he is come. 

TZO&ovvzi TZQOvydvng, thou comest to me earnestly wishing it, 
i. e. / earnestly wished that thou wouldst come. 

541. — Obs. 5. To this rule also belongs the construction of 
such phrases as tl ifiot xai goi (scil. xotvov ian) ; what have 
I to do with thee? (literally, what common thing is there to me 
and you?) ti 7i)Jov iarh ifioi '; ivhat advantage have I from 
it ? what good is it to me t 



§ 148. DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 247 

542. — Eule XXII. All verbs govern the dative 
of the object to which their action is directed; as, 

tvfovTO &80ig t they -prayed to the gods. 

KpaBXsneiv zui, to look up to any one. 

Jt&ijpq %BtQag ur£6Z nv * they lifted up their hands to Minerva* 

543. — Rem. 4. This rule may be considered as geueral, applying to 
all cases in which a verb expressing action is followed by the dative, 
the action not being exerted upon, but simply directed to the object 
expressed in the dative Hence, if the verb is transitive, it will govern 
also its immediate object in the accusative (58-4); it intransitive, it will 
be followed by the dative only. More particularly to this rule belong 

544. — I. Verbs expressing action, compounded with im, 
nqo^y dg t Jtwtt <fc& These prepositions serve to mark more pre- 
cisely the direction of the action, or state of action, to an object; 
as, eiGto'/eoOui tun, to come to one. 

545. — Obs. G. These verbs sometimes govern the accusative 
by the force of the preposition with which they are compounded; 
as, tneatQaTSVoe nohv, he waged war against the city, 6 ( J3. 

546. — Obs. V. Hence the dative in this construction generally 
is equivalent to the preposition dg, nqo^, im\ <fcc. with the accu- 
sative. Further, to this rule belong 

547. — II. Verbs which signify — 

1 . To profit or hurt ; to please or displease ; to reverence or 
to yield ; — to shew ; to seem ; to appear. 

2. To favour ov assist ; and the contrary, to pray to, or en- 
treat. 

3. To command, exhort, or address ; to obey or disobey ; to 
serve or resist. 

4. To Jit or accommodate ; to use and resemble. 

5. To give to, or to trust ; to approach, to meet or to follow. 

6. To reproach with, to censure, to reprimand or rebuke, to be 
angry with. 

548. — Exc. dt'co or dt'oficu, I ask, governs the genitive ; Xia- 
OOfiai and hrurtvco, always the accusative. 

549. — Obs. 8. Many of these verbs sometimes govern the da- 
tive, and sometimes the accusative, according as their action is 
viewed by the writer as directed to, or exerted upon, the object. 
In the former case they are viewed as intransitive verbs; in the 
latter, as transitive. 



248 DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL VERBS. § 149. 

550. — Rule XXIII. Verbs implying connec- 
tion or companionship, govern the dative ; as, 

OfuXeiv tin, to associate with any one. 

551. — In this construction, the dative is considered as corres- 
ponding to the ablative in Latin (517-2). To this rule belong 

1. Verbs compounded with ovv, opov, fierd (with) ; as, avtjfp 
tivij to live with any one. 

2. Verbs after which avv, 6fiov f petd, may be supplied con- 
sistently with the sense, such as those which signify 

(1.) To follow (with), to converse, to mix, to be reconciled^ 

to dwell (with). 
(2.) To contend, or strive with, or against, <fec. 

552. — Obs. 9. Verbs signifying "to contend," &c. m ona 
point of view may come under the principle referred to 543, and 
hence are sometimes followed by an accusative with 7io6g ; but 
then they signify more properly " to attack" 

553. — Obs. 10. If a dative of the manner or instrument (627) 
follows the verb fuyvvfu, to mix, instead of the dative of the per- 
son associated with, the genitive is used, governed by the word 
in the dative; as, Mala Aiog iv cpikornzi luyeiau, Maia 

BEING EMBRACED BY JUPITER. 

554. — Note. To the principle of this rule may be referred the con 
struction of the dative, expressing repetition or succession ; as, &ii/./.a 
&vilXji, storm upon storm ; aXXov (?' av oUAw nooaldouq, "you might see 
one and then another " (sciL rushing to the regions of Pluto). 

For the dative, construed with the passive voice, see 604. 



§149. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

555. — Rule XXIV. Impersonal verbs govern 
the dative ; as, 

e&GTi [ioi, it is lawful for me. 

edo£e avTco, it seemed proper to him (i. e. he determined). 

556. — Obs. 1. Special Rule. Jtl, sklsixei, §ia- 
cp'tQUy ix'trtOTiy jusXsf, lvh't/ w tTUL y and xQoor]xti 9 



§ 149. DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL VERBS, 249 

with their compounds, govern the dative of a per- 
son with the genitive of a thing ; as, 

dei nolX&v <ioi, you have need of much. 

fitrecTi fioi tovtov, I take part in that. 

ri de aQOGJjXEi iuol KoQirdicov ; what are the Corinthians to me? 

For the principle of this rule, as it respects the genitive, see 
505-1. 

557. — Rem. 1. The dative of the person is frequently omitted. 

558. — Rem. 2. The nominative, agreeing with the impersonal, 
is frequently used instead of the genitive ; as, dtucfegei zi goi 
zovto, or tovtov ; how does this concern you ? 

559. — Kcc. I. Atl and /{>)) frequently take the 
accusative of the person with the genitive of the 
thing; as, 

ov yaq 6k>v |U« 8h xTeamaficcTcov, for I do not want your oracles, 
ovdt ti as xqi'j zavzijg ucpgocjvvfjg, you have no need of this folly. 

560. — Obs. 2. From analogy, the derivative substantives XQ^, 
XQtico, Xi! tiu ' :uv (ltt, ' n OODBtrued with the accusative and geni- 
tive ; as ifti At yni-(<) yr/itTui avzijg, I / of it ; rig XQ tl ' a 
a iuov ; what nerd have yon of me? 

561. — Exc. II. yj)ii, nQtmiy and 8bI s it belwveth, 
govern tjie accusative with the infinitive ; as, 

XQH (yi**y») nouJGCUJ&at fljff UQmnjVj we ought to make peace, 
aocf-coztnovg yun bit ^ootcov thui &t'oug, It behoves those who are 
wiser than men to be gods. 

562. — Obs. 3. The dativews used in certain phrases in which 
it appears to depend on an impersonal or some other verb under- 
stood ; viz., 

1st. After cog to show that a proposition is affirmed, not as 
generally true, but only with respect to a certain person ; as, 
fiaxoav cog yt'govzt ngovczahjg boov, you have travelled a 
long way for an old man ; scil. cog cpuivezcu yt'govzi, long f 
as it appears to an old man. 
intintg ti ytvvaiog cog idovzi, but since thou art noble in 
appearance ; i. e. cog elxdaai iazl ioovzi, as a person 
having seen you may suppose. 
2d. To express the opinion or judgment of a person with or 
without tog] as, a iyco zifinaa zoig cpgovovaiv bv, I have 



_.. 



250 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. § 150. 

done honour to you according to the judgment of the wise ; 
i. e. cog doxei roig, &c. as it appears to those who are wise. 
Hence the common phrase, ag ipoi, or cag y ipoi (scil. Soxei), 
according to my judgment. 

For the dative governed by adverbs, see 655 and 664. 



§150. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

563.- — The accusative in Greek, as in other languages, is used 
to express the immediate object of a transitive active verb, that 
on which its action is exerted, and which is affected by it ; as, 
Xa^avm ri/v aaaida, I take the shield. When used to ex- 
press the remote object of a verb, or after verbs properly intran- 
sitive, it is governed by a preposition understood. 

564. — Kule XXV. A transitive verb, in the 
active or middle Voice, governs the accusative ; as, 

yvoo&i osavTov, know thyself. 

?]Q7ia£ov x)]v noXiv, they plundered the city, 

dyw&bv avdqa ztfiag, thou honourest a good man. 

565. — Obs. 1. Several verbs in Greek are used in a transitive 
sense, and have an accusative as their immediate object, which 
in Latin are considered as intransitive, and followed by some 
other case. They are chiefly the following ; viz., 

1st. Tieid'co ; as, Ttei&eiv rivd, to persuade any one. 

2d. vfioiZw ; as, vfioi&iv viva, to insult any one ; sometimes 
ei'g nva. 

3d. adixsco ; as, adixeiv nva, to injure, or do injustice to any one 

4th. Several verbs which signify to assist, to profit, to injure ; as, 
cocpeketo, ovn\ii, sveoysram, filantco, and with these verbs the 
adverbs more, very, are expressed by the accusative neuter 
of the adjectives irXeiow, (it'yag, viz. nXJov, \iiya. 

5th. The verbs dfiu^ofiai, avraneijlopai, nfuoosopai ; as, ap£t~ 
peo&ai xiva, to remunerate any one ; n/j.ojQtiod'ui nva. 

566 — Note 1. Some of these verbs govern other eases, but theu 
they generally convey a different idea ; thus, o; q> t X i lv two., to assist 
any one ; uxp f A* Xv rtvt, to be useful to any one. 

567. — Obs. 2. Many verbs are followed by an accusative, net 
of the object on which the action is exerted, but to which it has 



§ 150. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 251 

an immediate reference. Verbs thus used are properly intransi- 
tive, and the accusative is governed by the force of a preposition 
in composition with the verb, or understood after it. These are 
such as the following ; viz., 

1st. TZQOOxvvt'o) ; as, ngooxvptTv zivu, to bow the knee to any one, 
to adore. 

2d. doQV(fOQt'<n ; as, doQvyoneiv tira, to be a spearsman to any 
one. So also, 

3d. zmzQQTitvtiv, to be a tutor or guardian. 

4th. htvftuittv, to escape the notice of, or to remain unknown to. 

5th. qUdrtir, to come be/ore, prevent, or anticipate. 

6th. tmXtintiv, to be wanting to, or to fail. 

7 th. dnooioodaymv, to run away from. 

8th. unoiiu'jjEG&ai, to ward off ; oprvrai or imonxeiv rivd, to 
swear by any one. 

9th. To these may be added, intransitive verbs expressing some 
emotion or feeling; as, to be ashamed of or afraid of\ any 
one ; to compassionate any one, &c etc., which are followed 
by the accusative of the object ; thus, aidowteu tovg uq'/ov- 
rag, they respected the rulers ; — wig aw tadt y^&tjceuw ; who 
would rejoice at these things f — d/.ytti n, to he priei 

any thing ; — &OQQW It, to take eoarage with respect to any 

thing. The accusative in Bach oaaea may be governed by a 

preposition understood ; as, tnl, ntni, -Mini ; or by the par- 
ticiple of a transitive active verb, to be supplied ; as, 6(jg3;-, 
dxovcov, <fec. seeing, hearing. 

568 — Note 2. Instead of the accusative, many of these verbs are 
often followed by a genitive or dative, according to the rules for those 
cases. 

569. — Obs. 3. Special Eule: The infinitive 
mood or part of a sentence is often used as the 
object of a transitive verb instead of the accusa- 
tive ; as, 

yJtyco ndvrctg eiaqtoeiv, I say that rou should all CON- 
TRIBUTE. 

fitihiico cog ovx d).n{rij Xty(o f let him show that I do not 

SPEAK THE TRUTH. 

570 — Note. The infinitive is also used instead of the genitive and 
dative after verbs governing these cases. 714. 

571. — Obs. 4. In constructions of this kind, the object of the 
verb is frequently expressed twice. First, in a noun or pronoun 



252 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. §150. 

in the case required by the verb, and Secondly, in a dependent 
clause ; as, dv&Q(07iovg ts oida oia nsnov&aoi vcp sgrnrag, I 
know men what things they have suffered from love ; "layvag q>o- 
fiseai [iq [itTafialloiGi, you fear the lonians lest they revolt ; uq 
ifiov [iii{ivT]6{re onola 'ingaaoov ; do you remember me what things 
I did f This construction is especially common with the demon- 
strative pronoun in a sort of apposition with the clause which is 
the object of the verb, 396-5, 6 : it is also sometimes used in 
Latin (see Lat. Gr. 445, Obs. 2) ; but the English idiom requires 
these and similar sentences to be rendered as follows : " / know 
what things men have suffered from love" — " You fear that the 
lonians will revolt" — " Do you remember what things I did P 

572. — Obs. 5. The accusative is often governed by a transi- 
tive verb or participle understood ; as, as #// — yijg Stbouxsvai 
tads (sc. sqcotg)), but thee, (I ask) dost thou confess thou didst 
these things ? 6 8s t?jv 7ioQ(pvQi8a (sc. fycov), ^ waw m ^ {hav- 
ing) the purple robe. 

573. — Obs. 6. In this way, the words ovofia, vipog, nlrftog, 
svoog, and others, are frequently construed in the accusative ; as, 
i7T7z6doo[iog ataSiov to nXdiog (sc. s^cov), a race course (hav- 
ing) the breadth of a stadium. 

574. — Obs. 7. In like manner the accusative, apparently in 
apposition with an entire proposition, or placed in the beginning 
of a sentence, to express the leading idea, may be considered as 
depending on some preposition or verb understood ; as, 'EXtr^v 
xtdvwfitv MtvsXsco Xvnrp Tzixodv, let us slay Helen (sc. sig, in 
order to ; or, noiovpzeg, causing) bitter grief to Menelaus ; prjt- 
oa 8s — dip i'zco (i. e. ttsqi, or xatd, fir^sQa), as to your mother — 
let her return. 

575. — Obs. 8. Special Rule. An intransitive 
verb used transitively, governs the accusative ; as, 

TzoXsfisTv TTolsfiov, to wage war. 

This is done — 
1st. When the accusative is a substantive of a similar significa- 
tion with the word that governs it ; as, £j ft to* tfiiGtov, lie 
lives a very agreeable life. 

Note. To this principle of construction may be referred such phra- 
ses as vqovhv i^iya (scil. (poovrjua), to be proud ; a&dvara /uiv poori* 
(sc. yQovtjfiata), think as becometh an immortal. 

2d. When they only signify to cause that state or feeling which 
they express as intransitives ; as, y^sv X^Q ^ ^ caused the 



§ 151. ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. 253 

hand to move forward, i. e= he stretched out the hand ; ul 
7i/ffal otovai ydhi y.ul fith, the fountains caused milk 
and honey to flow ; i. e. the fountains fiowed with milk and 
homey. So Virgil : 

u Et durse quercus sudabunt roscida mella." 

576. — Obs. 9. A passive verb used in an active sense governs 
(he accusative, 195, Obs. 5, and 612 ; as, ^ovr^vtai noquav, they 
refused a passage. 



§151. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
GENITIVE. 

577. — Man} 7 transitive active verbs, together with the accusa- 
tive of the direct object, govern also another word to which the 
action has an indirect or remote reference, in the genitive, dative, 
or accusative, a.s the nature of that reference may require. 

578. — Rule XXVI. Verbs of accusing, con- 
d&mnmff, acquitting, and the like, govern the ac- 
cusative of the person with the genitive of the 
crime ; as, 

duauoueu ot deuUo?, I accuse you of cowardice. 

utioXucj at r/yV ahutg, I acquit you of this blame. 

579. — The genitive after verbs of accusing, is often governed 
by a preposition or some other word interposed, by which the ex- 
pression is rendered more emphatic ; as, 

eyQiiit'ocro (fit) tovtcov avtwv he accused me of these same 

i'vextt, things. 

&«xco at Tztot &avuzov, I accuse thee of a capital 

crime, 
tftvytir in aitia qorov, to be accused of murder. 

580. — Obs. 1. Verbs of accusing, &c. are such as im'&iui, 
yvdqouat, <Wxco, smartdonat, to accuse or criminate; cptvyo), 
to be hocused, or to defend ; uipt'co, to gain one's suit ; alcoui, to 
lose one's suit ; dtxd±co, to judge ; ).ay%dvco, to commence a suit ; 
iniXaufldvofiou and diziXaft^dvofiai, to blame, <fec. u7Tolvco, dcpi- 
tjfU, dnoMnflilouui, etc. to acquit. 

581. — Obs. 2. Verbs of this signification compounded with 
xard take the person in the genitive, and the crime or punish- 

12 



254 ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. § 152. 

ment in the accusative; as, xwzrffOQOvai gov gtugiv, they charge 
sedition against you. Sometimes the crime or punishment is 
a)so in the genitive ; as, y.azayircoGxw gov ftavarov or ftavuzov : 
but the punishment, seldom, except the word dardzov, and the 
crime, only after xaztjyoQt'co ; as, naQav6\i(ov avzov xazTjyooeiv. 

582. — Obs. 3. Verbs of accusing sometimes govern the dative; 
as, iyxalm goi nqoGOOGiav, I accuse thee of treason. 



583. — Rule XXVII. Verbs of hearing, enquir- 
ing, learning, &c. govern the genitive of the per- 
son with the accusative of the thing ; as, 

tjxovGe zov dyytXov zavza, he heard these things from the 

messenger. 
nvv&aveG&ui zi zivog, to hear any thing from any one. 

The genitive here is probably governed by dno or h. 



§ 152. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
DATIVE. 

584. — A transitive active verb governs the accusative and 
dative when, together with the immediate object of the action, it 
is followed by the person or thing in relation to which it was ex- 
cited. The more common constructions of this kind are com- 
prehended under the following rule ; viz., 

585. — Rule XXVIII. Verbs of comparing, 
giving, declaring, 'promising, and taking away, 
govern the acensative and dative ; as, 

vniGyyloyLCti goi dVxw zdXavza, I promise you ten talents, 
loiybv dfivvai zolg dXXoig, to avert the plague from others. 

586. — Obs. 1. After verbs of promising, declaring, and the 
like, the promise or declaration, forming part of a sentence, and 
sometimes a number of sentences, often stands as the accusative 
with the dative of the person ; as, 

AXt$avOQQg dmGzeiXe zolg "EXX^gi debv avzbr WtjqiGaG- 

&ai, Alexander ordered the Greeks to vote him a god. 
uiti uoi zi avzqj XQ'iGd' ^11 me what you would do 

WITH HIM. 



587. — Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the person, the accusa- 
tive with nqog is often used, and sometimes without it. 

588. — Obs. 3. In all constructions under this rule, botn in Latin 
and Greek, the verb, together with the accusative after it, is to be re- 
garded as expressing the amount of what is done to the remote object 
in the dative. Thus in the expression narrasfabularn surdo, the words 
vtrra.s fabtdam express the whole amount of what is done {surdo) to the 
deaf man. With verbs of taking away, the English idiom requires the 
dative to be rendered by from ; as, eripuit mihi gladium, "he forced the 
sword away fuom me." On this account, some have supposed that the 
dative in such expressions in Latin is governed by some such word as 
qristentem understood ; and others, to obviate the difficulty, have given 
the Greek an ablative. All this perplexity arises evidently from over- 
looking the principle of the construction. While the English idiom ex- 
a that from which a tiling is taken away, the Latin and Greek, 
with no lees elegance, on the general principle of the rule, express in 
the dative, that io which the aet of taking away is done. Thus in the 
above expression, the words eripuit gladium together, express what is 
done {mihi) to me. So also Terence : Sent animam extingueretn ipsi ; — 
ABOLBMEEirn oculos > rij,> r> ,n, "To TIIK OLD MAX, I would put out the 
breath ; — to the yoing max, I would put out the eyes." In Greek, 0c- 
/oviJTt t)i/.ro dtTTu^, TO TiiEMisris, /// took away the cup ; i. e. taking away 
tin cup was what he did i<» Thtmistis ; according to the English idiom, 
he took away the cup from Themietie. [See Hunter's Notes on Liv. B. L 
Chap. I. /'/" §L .Ln-;e AnU-norhju 

.'. — Ob*. 4. Verbi of giving, govern the genitive and da- 
tive when their direct object is in the genitive, according to Rule 
XV. ; as, utTudt'bcoiu aoi iwj' /o^/mrojr, / short the property 
with you. 



§153. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 

590. — Many verbs are followed by the accusative not only oi 
the immediate, but also of the remote object ; hence, 

591. — Rule XXIX. Verbs of ashing and teach- 
ing, clothing, concealing, depriving; speaking or 
doing well or ill to, and some others, govern two 
accusatives, the one of a person, the other of a 
thing ; as, 

Qr^cdovg XqI^uctu ij^aav, they sought money from the 

Thebans. 
StduGxoiHU zovg naltiag cnoqjgo- they teach their youths pro- 

ovi^r, bity. 

tl Tzoti.oo) uvtoi ; what shall I do to him ? 



■ _._ 



256 VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. § 153. 

592. — Obs. 1. The immediate object of verbs which signify 
" to do" or " to speak" is the action done or the word spoken ; 
the remote object is the person or thing to which it is done or 
spoken; thus, 

noiw dya&d. (scil. soya) ziva, to do good to any one. 

Xtyuv xaxd (sc. mij) riva f to speak evil of any one. 

593. — Instead of these adjectives with verbs of this significa- 
tion, the adverbs tv and xaxwg are frequently joined ; thus, xa- 
xag noieiv rivet, to do a person evil ; ev ).tysiv rivu, to speak well 
of a person. Sometimes these words are in composition with the 
verb; as, evloyeiv, xaxoloyeTr, F.vinykTth; xuxovnyeiv — in which 
the accusative becomes the direct object, and is governed by the 
compound transitive verb; as, xaxovgytii' juu, to maltreat a 
person. This corresponds to the English mode of expression, to 
maltreat a person, to eulogize a person. 

594. — On the same principle several verbs, such as lotdogeo- 
[Mii, Xvfiaivofiai, &c. which are usually followed by a dative, fre- 
quently take an accusative; as, oi.ryv iryv 710X1 v Ivfiawea&cu, 
to abuse the whole city. 

595. — 06.9. 2. When a verb admits of either of the words 
that follow it, as its immediate object, they are both put in the 
accusative ; thus, ivdvtiv nva tor ynwva, to clothe V person with 
a tunic, and, to put a tunic on a person, convey the same idea. 

596. — Obs. 3. A transitive verb, besides the accusative of the 
immediate object, may be followed by the accusative of a noun 
of similar signification with itself; as, or Ztig qiXti ttuvtoii^ 
cpiXoTrjta, whom Jupiter loves with great affection ; inxi t GS zovg 
fiaoftdoovg rtjV iv J)Iuoa&CQri pafflv, he conquered the barbarians 
in the battle of Marathon ; oooxijGav navzag zovg Gzoaziwzag 
zovg ^leyiGzovg ooxovg, they bound all the soldiers with the 
greatest oaths. 

597. — Obs. 4. When noi£L6&ai, with a noun derived from a 
transitive verb, is used as a circumlocution for the verb itself, it 
will of course be followed by two accusatives; thus, TrottiG&ai 
iryv [Aud'ijOiv for nca{}drEiv ; v7z6un;Gir noit'iGxlai for vnourur ; 
TZoisiG&ai t)]v dQ77ayi t r for aonatpw : as, axtvq xat drdoLiTrodu 
aonayyv 7tonjGCi(Atvog, plundering the furniture and slavis ; Bi 
making plunder of <fcc. 

598. — Obs. 5. Verbs which signify to call, or )ia?ne. choose, 
reckon, make, constitute, and the like, besides the accusative of the 
object, take also the accusative of the name, oj/ice, character, Jtre 



§ 154. CASES CONSTRUCTED WITH PASSIVE VOICE. 257 

ascribed to it ; as,, GZQazr^ybv avzbv U7it'8ei£ei>, he appointed 
him general. In this construction the verb thai is frequently 
interposed ; thus, tsocpuFttjP bvoiid^ovai zbv urdoa, or zbv dvdoct 
u'rai, they call the man a philosopher, 743-2 dtr 

599. — Obs. 6. The accusative neuter of pronouns and adjec- 

ia often admitted in this construction, as well as with verbs 
which govern the genitive or dative, when the accusative of the 
substantive could not be used ; as, 

zovrn fit ijtfxqOBf he injured me in this. 

zi XQcbfiat uvko ; for what may I use it? 

600. — Obs. 7. Instead of the second accusative, mauy verbs 
under this rule frequently take the genitive or dative ; and, on 
the other hand, >ome verbs which are usually followed by an ac- 
cusative with the genitive or dative, sometimes take the double 
accusative ; thus, oV di t no).).a xax didownoiai (for ar&oeoirovg) 
icooyet, who verily iujt.ict, .< ; dnocTtntiv zua 

zd iQi'iftaza, and tgoi ^o^udicor, to deprive a person of his goods. 
001. — Obs. 8. The second accusative is often to be explained 
by a preposition after such verbs as ttooxetXeoe, dvayxd^a, dno~ 
y.nirojua, and verbs which Bignify t<> divide, as, diatot'co, dd^co, 
as, nQOxaleia&cu row [ig) tmovddg, to invite a person to 
i'y ; Kvqog to modtevfia xartretfit («V) dwbtAu (itQij, 
ided the army into twelve parte. 

*»0i. — Note. With verba of dividing, the whole which is divided is 

sometimes put in the genitive, and the word plpoc, peijpa, »v<-., referred 

t<« the verb; as, Stadtxa lHqejt** tfvlad (Vt.?jo?;iTat, the tril»s of the Per- 

, for, the I into twelve 

; ftoioai Si ti/.tr $i mm ixnU#f y.ai oTihrotv, literally, he divided 

the pan • six; i. e. he divided the cavalry 

i1 ruction is imitated in Latin, Cic. 
de Orat I> puedam membra oUtpertiat, for ea 

i quasi in quadam membra, ifcc. 



§154. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES WITH THE PASSIVE 

VOICE. 

603. — Th.' passive voice is usually followed by a genitive of 
the doer, governed by the prepositions vno, ex, iraqd, TTQog, and 

quently, the government of the case falls under the rules for 
prepositions ; as, /<// mnm vrr<> rov xcutov, be not overcome of evil. 

times, though very seldom, it follows the preposition in the 
dative ; as, vxb aurndnui*; dwtxuafrea, to be governed by viceroys. 



258 CASES CONSTRUCTED WITH PASSIVE VOICE. § 154 

But instead of this, and equivalent to it, the dative without a pre- 
position is common ; hence the two following rules ; viz., 



604. — Rule XXX. Passive verbs frequently 
govern the dative of the doer ; as, 

ingciTTETO avrolg ta i)jg no- the affairs of the city were con- 

Xeag, ducted by them, 

nmoitjzai poi, it has been done by ?ne. 

605. — Note. This construction most commonly takes place with the 
perfect passive, and the dative is equivalent to the genitive with vno, 
which is in common use ; as also ngoq, and sometimes napd, ex or i|, 
and cbrd. On the same principle, the verbal adjectives in rot; and rtoq, 
having a passive signification, govern the dative of the doer, 528. 



606. — Rule XXXI. When a verb in the active 
voice governs two cases, in the passive it retains 
the latter case ; as, 

xaTtjyoQtopcu xXonyg, I am accused of theft 

idoOn fioi nwsa ££ov(jia, all power is given to me. 

fiovGMTjv i^v vnb Au.\innov being taught music by Lam- 

Tzaidevxreig, prus. 

607. — Obs. 1. Any passive verb may be followed by an ac- 
cusative of similar signification with itself, on the principle laid 
down 596 ; as, tvnxerai nXr/yug noXXdg, he is struck with many 
blows. 

608. — Obs. 2. When a verb in the active voice governs the 
accusative with the dative of a person, the passive frequently re- 
tains the former case, the latter being used as the subject of the 
verb. Thus, the same idea may be expressed in three different 
ways; viz., 

1st. With the active voice ; as, 6 dtjfiog InioiEvae Avxuvnyco t^v 
rijg noXecog imfiil&av, the people committed the care of the 
city to Lycurgus. 
2d. By the passive voice with the latter case ; as, /lvv.ovoyco 
smGtev&i] vnb zov dtjfxov r\ zijg noXtcag enifteXtia, the man- 
agement of the city was entrusted to Lycurgus. 
3d. By the passive voice with the former case, according to the 
Obs. ; as, Avy.ovoyog t)\v rijg noltcog tntutXtiav vnb tow 
df'ifiov imartvirij, Lycurgus was entrusted with the manage 
ment of the city by the people. 



§155. CONSTRICTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 259 

The following are examples of this construction : oi tTiiztzoau- 
ptPM zip (fwhaa'/p, those entrusted with the watch ; for o'tg ij qv- 
).uy.i] tmzp'iQaxzo : r) t v d' r/. ytiQwr doTTULopat, she is torn from 
my hands ; for /) C? tx /Uigur uoTTi'utzat. 

609. — Hence, also, such phrases as the following : Ai^ione^ 
nagdaXtaf t-i/jiuHoi, the Ethiopians girded with panthers' skins ; 
Xninu dtlzor pffbyoafifiawqp hnO/'^iaza, he leaves a tablet insert 
bid with writings : because in the active voice it would have 
been nuTiTuv AiiHontoi naoda/.tag — tyyodqur iviftfjuaza o'tl- 
Tt>). The accusative, mi almost all such cases, may be explained 
by supplying y.azu. This construction is not used in Latin, ex- 
cept in a few instances, which are manifest Graecisms ; e. g., in- 
scripti try urn fores, "flowers inscribed with the names 

of kings." Lat. Gr. 525. 

610 — Note. This construction, used in Latin only as a Grrecism, is 
common in English with indh verbs as, to ask, teach, offer, promise, 
pais, tell, allow, deny, and the like; as, He allowed me great liberty ; 
'v. great liberty was allowed me, or, I was allowed great liberty. 
h" y w.-if offered (to) me," or, "I was offered them." See Ana- 
lytic! and Practical English Grammar, 812, 813. Oombie's Etymolo- 
gy, p. wo. 

61 1. — Obs. 3. On the same principle the part affected (505-3), 
is often put in the accusative after the passive voice ; thus, instead 
of to zoiivud fwv tTzidtizaiy my wound is bound up, the genitive 
is changed into the nominative to the verb, and the nominative 
or part affected into the accusative; thus, (jfyw) Imfisouaitb 
z navy a, I am bound up as to my wound; TlQOunxitvg ixet- 
ntro zb ijTzan, liter ally, Prometheus was torn out as to his 
LITER ; i. e. hit lirer was torn out. See also 622. 

612. — Obs. 4. When the passive is used in a middle sense 
(195, Obs. 5), it becomes deponent, and may be followed by an 
accusative in the same manner as the active voice ; as, 7zaoeGxev~ 
aaukvoi nana enXsov, having provided every thing, they sailed ; 
■tjonp-rai nootiav, they refused a passage, 576. 



§ 155. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

613. — Words and phrases are often thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence in an adverbial manner, to express some cir- 
cumstance connected with the idea of the simple sentence, and 
which do not depend for their case on any word in the sentence 



260 REMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN. § 156. 

to which they belong, but on a preposition, or adverb, or other 
word understood ; as, 

i^elavvsi oru&fiovg 8vo elg 'Iaaovg, xca Evtuv&a epeivev r^i- 
gag rgeig, he advanced two days' journey to Issus, ana 
remained there three days. 

fieyaXn anovdrj navra ingdtxezo, every thing was done with 

GREAT HASTE. 

Under the general name of circumstances may be included 
words which indicate, 1. The remote cause or origin, §15 
A particular qualification or direction of a general expr> 
§ 157 ; 3. Cause, manner, or instrument, § 158 ; 4. Place, i$ 159 ; 
5. Time, § 160 ; 6. Measure, § 161 ; 7. Price, § 162 ; 8. Excla- 
mation, § 163. 



§ 156. I. THE REMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN. 

614. — Rule XXXII. The cause, source, or ori- 
gin, and the part affected, are put in the genitive ; 
as, 

fiMndgi-og trjg rvyr t g y happy from his fortune. 

(f-ih-l avzov tyg agerijg, he loves him on account of his virtue. 

Iv'aov y.garerv go row, to take a wolf by the ears. 

615. — Obs. 1. Instead of the genitive, the accusative is often 
used, governed by xard, &«, (fee. understood. 

616. — Obs. 2. The circumstance of cause expressed by the 
genitive, differs from that expressed by the dative ; the genitive 
expresses the remote or moving cause — the dative, the immediate 
or effective cause. 

617. — Obs. 3. The material of which a thing is made is ex- 
pressed in the genitive ; as, addict* dicp&egajv, rafts made of 
skins. See 456. 

618 — Note. The genitive of the material is considered by some 
grammarians as depending on ex or an 6 understood ; and an argument 
in favour of this ellipsis is drawn from the circumstance of Uot o\tto 
being sometimes expressed. In all such passages, the preposition seems 
to contain a more direct reference to the material than could be done 
by the common construction, especially if a passive participle be like- 
wise \ised ; as, ttiqa t| udauavtoi; ntnottjuivr. a seat made of adamant. 
Sometimes the dative is used for the genitive, when the "material of 



§ 157. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 261 

vrhich any thing is made may be considered also as the means by which 
it is made ; as, at p'tv yao xiQatani, TtTfi'/arcw, at <?' D.iqxxvT*, 
some were made of horn, some of ivory. 



§ 157. II. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 

619.- — A particular qualification of a general expression, made 
in English by the phrase " in respect of" " with regard to" is 
expressed by the genitive and dative ; or, more briefly, as fol- 
lows : 

620. — Kule XXXIII. Respect wherein is ex- 
pressed in the genitive, sometimes in the dative, 
444. 

I. In the Genitive ; as, 

tyyvtata uvnji itfu ytiovg, I am very near him in respect of kin, 

buavg dwdfHDV, thick with trees. 

7ih t (ju)i alh'jXwr f near (in respect of) each other. 

621. — The genitive is a* 

ber ha, in the Berne of to be [$e habere), with such adverbs 
as tv, cog, oncog, nag, ovzcog t xaXttff, cv<-. ; u, nuidtlag ovzwg 
t/ti, In' is to in respect of learning ; xuXtig i%tiv {itO/jg, to be 
pretty drunk ; rptw is used in the same way ; as, Tt).).og zov 
(itov ev i/.Mr, Ttllus being well advanced in {respect of) life. 

2. After other verb*; as, tntiytio&ai dn^og, to be in haste with 
respect to the battle. 

8. After adjective*; as. urrcag dnntrmv nat'door, childless with 
respect to sons ; i. e. without male offspring. 

4. With adverbs ; as, nqocta OQerijg dvf t xtu>, to carry it far with 
respect to virtue. 

5. With substantives ; as, dyytXiu rr t g Xiov y the relation con- 
cerning Chios. 

6. With entire propositions; as, tl narohg vtfiet tip aroav rov 
xaXwg n q da a e iv doxetv, if he possesses any care of his 
father, in respect of his appearing to prosper. 

622. — Obs. 1. Respect wherein is also put in the accusative 
governed by xatd understood ; viz., when the idea expressed by 
a verb or adjective is to be more accurately determined by an 
additional circumstance ; as, tbv ddxzvlov dXya, I am pained 

12* 



262 CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. § 157. 

in my finger ; '/6Q8iG)v ov dt'fiag, ovds tyQevag, inferior nei- 
ther in body nor mind ; nodag ar/.vg J4%i).).tvg, Achillea swift 

OF FOOT. 

623. — Note 1. This is the construction so often imitated by the Latin 
poets ; thus, Os humerosque deo similis. Lat. Gr. 538. 

624. — Note 2. The accusative in this construction is in signification 
adverbial and hence is frequently used as an adverb ; thus, cuoy^v, above 
all, originally ; xdyoq, quickly ; TE/oq, finally ; ttjv nQonrjv, at first, &c, 
nard being understood. So also such expressions as to ivavriov, on th* 
contrary ; to kfyo/ufvov, according to the proverb, <fec. 

II. In the Dative. 

625. — This case is used in a sense nearly similar, 
to express that with respect to which a thing is 
affirmed to be or take place. This usage, in Greek, 
may be illustrated by the following examples : 

1. a^iog rp> ftavdzov tfj noXei, he was worthy of death, with 
respect to the state ; i.e. he was guilty of a capital crime 
against the state. 

2. xal dij fied lev %al€7ioio %6Xoio TnXepdxq), and now they 
laid aside their grievous anger against (with respect to) Tele- 
machus ; so tycoys Xiaaofiai A"£i\1.H]i utfo'nev yo\ov, I will 
pray him to lay aside his anger against Achilles. 

3. to fitv aZmxrev dnTo^iivco ocofia ova dyav xreofibv i t t; the 
surface of the body was not very hot when one touched it 
(lit. with respect to one touching it). 

4. 'Emdafivog iazi nohg iv deha ionliovzi tor 'lonov xoX- 
Tzov, Epidamnus is a. city on the right hand as you enteb 
(with respect to one entering) the Ionian bay. 

5. dvmdExdtn ds ot fag xsins'vco, the twelfth day since he lay 
(to him lying). 

6. 'HoaxXe'i [i?v £// oaa alio) yJiyvnnoi <ram thai tiea £$ 
Jluamv, the Egyptians themselves tell how many years passed 
from Hercules (or since the death of Hercules) to Ama&s. 

*7. rifiqv dgvvfievoi Meveldco, looking for the advantage (or 

pleasure) of Menelaus. 
8. OQxnadfjiEvoi freoiGij dancing in honour of the gods. 

626. — Bern. Respect wherein is also sometimes expressed in 
the dative governed by (v understood ; as 

noai raxvg, swift of foot. 



§ 1.08. cause, manner, and instrument. 263 

§ 158. III. THE CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRUMENT. 

627. — Rule XXXIV. The eav-se, manner, and 
instrument, are put in the dative; as, 

yofo tTtnazToiy I did it from fear. 

ro rcodt no inoncy, it happened in thin manner, 

TruTUGattr Qapdtpt to girths with a stick. 

628. — Obs. 1. The cause or motive may be considered as in- 
ternal <>r external. The internal cause represents the act as pro- 
ceeding from «ome particular state or disposition of the subject, 
or quality residing in it, and contains tiie answer to the question 
from what? or wfieneef and consequently may generally be ren- 
dered from : evvota y avdeH, I speak from good-will. The 
represents the action as oauaad by something with- 
out the agent, and may generally be rendered "for," "on ac- 
count of," sometimes " according to," "in consequence of;" as, 
XQtjuuat* BfiatQOfUvog, elated with, or in consequence of riches ; 
Aemnwwt tunotniasi, for (i.e. in order to) the re-establishment of 
be motive being derived from the end ; {ravfiu^b) 
ri t urroy.hinti uov itov 7iv).d>v, J am astouislied at the shutting 
up of my gates. 

629. — Ob*. 2. In this construction the dative expresses the 
nearer or immediate cans.-, the more remote being usually ex- 
pressed by the genitive, or by <W with the accusative (615); as, 
unOi-nta gojuutoji diu ri t v GiioStiav V7rt'/ojoovr, they (the 
Lacedemonians) pave way. from the weakness of their bodies in- 
duced BY WANT OF PROVISION 

630. — Obs. .3. The dative of the cause is probably governed 
by the preposition auayl, 7tiqi, or em understood. Sometimes 
they are expressed ; but whether with or without a preposition, 
the whole expression is adverbial in its nature; and hence, disre- 
garding its ease, a neuter adjective or pronoun is sometimes put 
in the same construction with it, in the accusative; as, ei tivo^ 
[itya Jf to crco ixa qvatt, // rpoqrjj, rj aficpoztoa, if the body of 
a person was larye naturally, or by nourishment, or both 

631. — Obs. 4. The dative of the manner is governed by iv 
or avv understood, and may be considered as adverbial. Hence, 
perhaps, verbs of punishing are followed by the punishment in 
the dative ; as, typuovp riva *>«7«f^, yvyrj, <tc. to punish any 
one with death, with banishment, 4kv 



264 CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. § 159. 

632. — Obs. 5. The dative of the instrument or mean may be 
a person ; as, zoig naqovaiv emgcfer, lie built the wall by 

MEANS OF THOSE WHO WERE PRESENT. It is also put with Sub- 

stantives ; as, xivtjcug i<p Gcofiazi, motions made with the 

BODY. 

633. — Note. Hence the construction of '/qtja&ou with the dative 
that which we use being considered as an instrument. On the same 
principle, the dative is put after other verbs which imply the idea of 
using; TtxpaiQta&at, rolq nqoG&tv w/toloyi] pivots, to infer from what was 
granted ; i. e. to use as proof s the things formerly granted. 

634. — Obs. 6. Instead of the dative, the prepositions iv, ano, 
did, ovv, with their cases, are sometimes used. 



§159. IV. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 

635. — The oircumstances of place respect motion to, or from, 
or through, a place, and motion or rest in a place ; in all of 
which the Greek writers generally use a proper name with a 
preposition ; thus, f£ ^{rrjvcov, from Athens ; eig Bonavviuv, to 
Britain ; iv rivXcp, in Pylos ; oia ti'jg noiecog, through the city. 
But, 

636.— Rule XXXV. The place where, without 
a preposition, is expressed in the genitive or da- 
tive; as, 

Jttoyeog, at Argos ; Maga&dhi, at Marathon. 

637. — Obs. 1. In this construction the genitive may be gov- 
erned by im or moi ; and the dative by iv understood. The 
preposition is also often understood before common nouns de- 
noting place ; as, '£o%£a&ov xh<jiqv, they two come to the teat 

638. — Obs. 2. The genitive after eig, to a place, or iv, in a 
place, is governed by a substantive understood ; as, eig adov (sc. 
do t uov), to Hades ; iv Jtnyeog (sc. noXei), at Argos, 451. 

639. — Obs. 3. The terminations &i and at, added to a noun, 
denote at a place; as, ayoo&i, in the country; Otjfcoi, at 
Thebes ; — de and ge, to a place ; as, Jl&/;vaade, to Athens ; xh- 
-jitjvde, to the tent ; — &ev and \re, from a place ; as, xliGiq&ev 
aveilezo tyxog, ^ € io0 ^ ° s P ear from the tent, 324. 



§ 160, 161. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 265 

§160. V. CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 

640. — Kule XXXVI. Time wlien is put in the 
dative ; time how long, in the accusative ; thus, 

when ; as, rj[i£Q(i tQirv, on the third day. 
how long ; as, rgeTg oXovg ptpag TtagfyeivEv, he remained 
three whole months. 

641. — Obs. 1. When the reference is to a fixed time at which 
a tiling took place, the dative is used as in the rule ; but if the 
idea of duration is implied, it is put in the accusative ; as, rag 
yfUQecg y.cti rag vvxrag, by day and by night ; sometimes in the 
genitive ; as, txaxmae fitrj HgaxXnein rwv ngortgcov hmv, Her- 
cules distressed us informer years. 

642. — Obs. 2. Time how long, may respect the time during 
which, since which, or after which, some event took place. The 
firef is put in the accusative, as above ; the second is more com- 
monly expressed in the genitive ; as, noXXov avrovg 017 icoga- 
xa xqovov, I have not seen them for a long time; the third y 
generally in the dative ; as, ov noXXaig r^itgaig voregov, not ma- 
ny days after. But lometimes in the genitive, when protracted 
and indefinite ; as, ixeTae ovx dqixnizai irav fivgicov, he 
comes not thither in ten thousand years. In this, however, 
Ihere is some variety. 



§161. VI. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 

The circumstances of measure respect magnitude, distance, 
And the measure of excess, as follows : 

643. — Rule XXXVII. The measure of magni- 
tude is put in the genitive ; as, 

uvdgidg dvwdexa n ijxeojv, a statue of twelve cubits. 



644.— Rule XXXVIII. The measure of dis- 
tance is put in the accusative, sometimes in the 
dative ; as, 



206 EXCLAMATION. § 162, 163. 

EcpFcrog kni'fzi tqiwv ijptomv bdov, or 65w, Epheeus is distant 

three days' 1 journey. 
7ZEvztxaLdtxa arffliiiQ vipcod-q to vdwo, the water rose fifteen 

CUBITS. 

645. — Obs. When measure of magnitude or distance is found 
in the nominative after a substantive verb, or in the accusative 
after an infinitive, the construction is according to 436. 



646. — Rule XXXIX. The measure of excels is 
put in the dative after the comparative degree ; 
as, 

ivnavrco nQEa^vxegog, older by a year. 

647. — 06«. Hence the expressions jzoV.qj, o/uyco, Poa%ei, <fec. 
with the comparative. It is, however, sometimes put in the ac- 
cusative ; as, 7ioXv fiei^cov, much greater ; noXVor dpsinov, much 
better. 



§ 162. VII. CIRCUMSTANCE OF PRICE. 

648. — Rule XL. The price of a thing is put in 
the genitive ; as, 

dog tovto dnayj.u;g, give this for a drachma. 

649. — Obs. The price is put sometimes in the dative, with the 
preposition im expressed or understood ; as, inl ptG&qt utyc'do), 
for a great reward. Sometimes in the accusative : as, mnpcioxzi 
o xaxbg ndvxa nobg anyvnior, the wicked man sells every thing 
for silver. 



§163. VIII. EXCLAMATION. 

650. — Rule XLI. Exclamations of praise, in- 
dignation, compassion, etc., are put in the geni- 
tive, sometimes in the accusative ; as, 

t?jg avaidziag, the impudence ! 

<pm rov drdgog, Alas! the man. 

w 8[ii: deiXaior, wretched me ! 



§ 164, 165. ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 267 

651. — Obs. Sometimes with the genitive, there is an addition 
of the nominative ; as, o\\im zwv e'fiwv fyw x«xom>, ah ! my mise- 
ries. 7cu, ovaiy of, and w, govern the dative ; as, i(6 pou woe 
is me. 



§ 164. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

652. — Adverbs are joined to adjectives, verbs, and other ad- 
verbs, to express some circumstance, quality, or manner, of their 
signification. 

653. — Many adverbs in Greek have the force of prepositions 
in Latin and English. These are often joined with substantives, 
as will appear in the following rules. They are also sometimes 
Uted as substantives or adjectives ; as, ano tote, from that time ; 
o liw m&Qtmog, tlte outward man. 373-2d. 

654. — Rule XLII. Derivative adverbs com- 
monly govern the case of their primitives ; as, 

«i/ov i t n(~)r, m ■ manner worthy of us. 

uaXlOTO. rrt'ciron-y most of all. 

ouoing fig auUoif, in a manner similar to the rest. 

m'tQt/. n~«, without the shijj. 



§165. ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 

655. — Adverbs having the force of prepositions govern the 
same ease with the prepositions which, in meaning, they resem- 
ble ; thus, ofiov, «/<«, together, having the force of ow>, govern 
the dative ; nt/.u, on account of resembling did, governs the 
genitive. This general principle authorizes the two following 
rules : 

^. r )6. — Rile XLIIT. Some adverbs of time, 
place, and quantity, likewise of number, order, aiid 
exception, govern the genitive ; as, 

ov ;'/%• tlfti ; where am I? 

ol'iqi rift GtifiEQor fjueoag, to this day. 

657. — Obs. 1. To these may be added adverbs of cause, com- 



268 ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. § 165. 

parison, distinction, concealment, separation, or exclamation ; and 
also nouns used adverbially, as, x ( *-Q lv > Mxqv, ivmmov, (fee. ; as, 
dixqv Tzotaficovj like rivers. 

658. — The adverbs which come under this rule are the follow- 
ing : uvev, arsQj diya f xwqig, without ; dvzixgv, dvzixgvg, dnav- 
zixqv, against, opposite ; a%Qi, pt'xQ 1 ' ^°i even t° > tvExa, tvtxsv, 
on account of; syyvg, nXrjoiov, ay%i, aaaov, near ; ixtog, e£a, 
exzoa&ev, without ; Ivzog, saco, eioco, evzog&ev, within ; nk'jr, 
Tzaosxzog, except, but ; [i£za%v, among ; bniGco, omG&ev, be- 
hind ; iiqog&sv, before ; mgav, inixeiva, beyond, <fec. 

659. — Exc. 1. dyyi and ahg sometimes govern the dative. 

660. — Exc. 2. 7rh]vy except, has sometimes the nominative 
after it; as, 7iki\v oi zav naio~(ov diddaxaloi, except the 

TEACHERS of the boT/S. 

66 1 — Note. Adverbs of the final cause are frequently omitted ; as, 
tyqayct xovdi, I wrote for this reason, sup. cWxa. 

662. — Obs. 2. Adverbs of time, place, (fee. are frequently 
changed by the poets into adjectives; as, oide 7zavt][itoioi 
uolnri ftebv ildoxovzo, they propitiated the god with song the 

WHOLE DAY. 381. 

663. — Certain adverbs are joined sometimes with one case, 
and sometimes with another ; as follows : 

1st. apfiiya, d[i[ifydrp>, r/yvg, iyyvfev, ndoryyvg, cvveyyvg, e§jg t 
icpsStig, G%toov, Gxedo&Et', avT06%Ed6v y are put with the gen- 
itive or dative. 

2d. ayxh &y%o&h ixTtodcov, nltfiiov, 87zi7TQoa&Er y oftener with 

the GENITIVE. 

3d. dvdnahv, tpnahv, oftener with the dative. 

4th. eigco, [lEOCpa, ndoEx or ndqE^ tteqi^, with the genitive oi 

accusative. 
5th. dsvgo, with the dative or accusative. 

6th. cixQh &y,Qigi P^XQ 1 ' f^XQtG* "^th tb- e genitive, dative, or ac- 
cusative. 



fi64. — Ktjle XLIV. Adverbs of accompany in j 
govern the dative ; as, 

d{4.a zrj tyiEQa, > at day-break. 



§ 166. NEGATIVES. 269 

605. — Rule XL V. Adverbs of swearing govern 
the accusative ; as, 

vq Jiu t by Jupiter ; fid zods oxinzoov, by this sceptre, 

666. — Obs. 3. In sentences of this kind, fid commonly denies, 
unless joined with rai\ and n) affirms, unless joined with a nega- 
tive. 

667. — Obs. 4. Adverbs of showing are put with the nomina- 
tive ; as, idov 6 arfrgmnog, behold the man; *de i] uij7t t n fiou 
xat n't ddthjoi fwv, behold my mother and my brethren. 



§166. NEGATIVES. 

668. — The Greek language has two simple negatives, ov and fit], 

from which all the compound negative terms are formed, and to 

which, in their u.se and maimer of construction, they are similar. 

Between these two negatives and their respective compounds there 

if use, the foundation of which is as follows : 

669. — 1. Ov is the direct and independent negative, which 

express denial without reference to any thing else; 

/. iOt'lcoy I will not ; ovx uya(r6v ion, it is not good ; ov- 

Ar/s- naQipt no ov was present A direct negation of this kind 

can never be expressed by fit] or its compounds. 

670. — 2. Mi], on the other hand, is uniformly a dependent 

\e. It is therefore used in all propositions in which the 

ve is represented, not as a fact, but as something dependent 

on the conception, as a condition, supposition, <fec. ; and hence 

it is used in the manner following: 

1-t. After the conditional conjunctions «* iav, tp s orav, ineiddv, 
icog, ai; and those which intimate an end, design, motive, as, 
int, cog, on cog, ware ; as, el fit] ootid)*' fo'yco, if I do not 
speak correctly ; amdqftnOB tra fit]- dvayxaaO'rj, x.t.X., he 
(Solon) went away that he might not be compelled, &c. 
3d. Without any such particle, fit'] is always put with the im- 
perative mood in all the tenses; with the subjunctive, in the 
aorist8 used imperatively ; and with the optative, when it ex- 
presses a wish ; as, ui t in- paXke, or fit] fit fidh^g, do not 
strike me ; fU] yiioizo, may it not be. 
3d. Mi] is used after relatives, and with participles when they 
express a condition or supposition ; as, zig de dovvai dvrazca 



270 DOUBLE NEGATIVES. § 167, 

itfQcp a fjLij avTog £%ei; who can give a thing to another, 
if he has it not himself? a ovx uvzbg ey& would mean, 
that which he has not himself . So also, 6 [iij maztvcoi; if a 
person does not believe. But 6 ov m&rsvcoVj is, one who 
does not believe. 

4th. M// is used with infinitives whether they are dependent upon 
another verb, or used with the article as a verbal noun (714) ; 
as, dvdyxv zovzo p; noiuv, it is necessary not to do this ; 
to p y noitiv, the not doing. 

5th. With verbs which signify to fear, to warn, and the like, \ii\ 
is used, like ne in Latin, where a positive expression is used 
in English ; as, StSoixm fxi) ti ytvnrai, vereor ne quid acci- 
dat, / am afraid that something may happen. Sometimes 
the preceding verb is understood ; as, iu t rovzo d/.lcog e/n 
(soil. 8t8oixu), I fear lest this be otherwise. 

So also, after verbs which signify to forbid, deny, pr< 
refrain, disbelieve, to be cautious, and the like, it is frequently 
put with the infinitive, where the negative is not used in 
English ; as, dnavdcc zovzbv [xij naott'rui, I forbid this man 
to enter. 

6th. Mr} is sometimes merely an interrogative particle like nunc 
in Latin, giving, however, greater emphasis to the question ; 
as, fjiij dvsletv fie av &eXeig ; wilt thou kill me ? 

671. — 3. A negative placed between the article and its noun, 
converts it into a sort of compound negative term ; as. r t ov 8id- 
XvGig tmv yeqwofov, the not destroying of the bridges ; /; {iij t/<- 
aeiQia, the inexperience. 

672. — Rem. In the same manner, it is used with certain verbs, 
not as a negative, but to reverse their meaning; thus, qry*/, I say, 
ov (pnfii, I deny, contradict; sdco, I allow, ovx faw, I forbid ; 
vmG%vso(j(u, I promise, ov% vmayriiouai, 1 refuse ; thus, ovx 
k'cpaoav zovzo slvai does not signify, they did not say that this 
was, but, they dexied that this was, or, they said this was not. 



§ 16V. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 

673. — When to a proposition already negative, and also to 
verbs which signify to deny, to contradict, to hinder or oppose, 
and the like, other qualifications of a general nature are to be 
attached ; such as ever, any body, any where, &&; it is usual to 



§ 167. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 271 

do tibia by compounds of the same negative. Hence the follow- 
ing rule* : 

674. — Rule XLVL Two or more negatives, 
joined to the same verb, strengthen the negation ; 

ova enoujGt rothro ovftafiov ovfttig, no one any wl^re did this. 

675. — Obs. 1. To the negation of the whole, is joined, in the 
Mime sentence, the negation of the parts; as, ov bvviaai ovie 
s.hyttv ovit ttoim', he ran withe r speak nor act. 

Net*. Consequently, in translating such propositions into English, 
only one IK be u-.nl. 

M6. — Rule XLVIL Two or more negatives 
joined to different verbs, destroy the negation, 
and are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, 

ov toraue&a u\ XaXeht we cannot but speak. 
ovdug oorti rarot, th< n ly who will not laugh, i. e. 

will laugh ;" iati being understood with ovdetg. 

- — rjijs 2. Indeed, so common ia the ellipsis of tori in 
thi< expression that it is lust sight ofj and the antecedent ovdei'g, 
which should be its nominative, 18 often attracted into the ease 
of the relative which follows ; a>, ovbtil otqj OVX uotaxti, there 
is nobody whom it does not phase, for ovSttg dr«j>, dec; ovSeva 
oituu ov naxixXavotPt I every one to weep, for ovdeig 

tOTtP orztra, &C, there is no one whom he did .not cause to 
iri i ■■/>. 

678. — Obs. 3. It is also proper to observe the use of the nega- 
tive in Buch sentences as the following: xeu ov ravza ptv yoacpEi 
o tyCUnnog roig 6° tnyoig ov noitt, Philip does not write these 
things and not perform them ; i.e. think not that Philip writes 
these things cud dots not execute the//i ; where the first ov does 
not affect the verb yoeupei, but the two propositions together. It 
denies an assertion which might be thus expressed : yodupei ulv 
o!> noiu tV, he writes but does not execute. So also ov 8)( rwv 
nil -/Hoarr/icor tail 7/ nioag 7/~y ioyaoiag, rov d' dv&QcampOV 
Biov ocx i r ui, "it cannot be that there is some object in tlte la- 
bours of the artist, >> n the life of man." 

679. — Note. In phrases of ti is kind, the two propositions, as here, 
arc usually distinguished bj ftiv and 6( ; and the second is negative. 



272 prepositions. § 168. 

680. — Obs. 4. Tn some phrases ov and p/ are united ; as, ov 
pi] and j«;/ ov. Ov \ii\ is a stronger and more emphatic negation 
than ov, and is used in the same way, 669. Mq ov, in general, 
is only a stronger expression of fitj, and is used in the same man- 
ner, subject, however, to the following modifications : 

1st. In dependent propositions, when the verb of the principal 
proposition is either accompanied by a negation, or contains 
a negative idea in itself, ptj ov destroy each other, and may 
generally be rendered "that;" as, ovx aQVOVficu fiy ov 
ytvsa&ai, I do not deny that it has taken place ; aa&Of*at 
yao ov zooovTov ovdtv gjgte fit] ov xaltog tiuvth; for I am 
■persuaded that there will nothing happen to me so bad but 
that / shall die nobly. 

2d. M?i ov, after verbs signifying to fear, to warn, &c, as above, 
670-oth, render the sentence negative, which, with pq alone, 
would be positive ; as, dtdoixa pr t ov it yivr^at, I am afraid 
lest something may not happen ; (po^ovfiat fiij ov xaXbv r t , 
vereor ne non honestum sit, I fear that this may not be 
proper. 

ad. In independent propositions with the subjunctive mood, in] 
joined with ov makes the negative expression less positive ; 
as, alia [a?j ovx ij diduxtbv ij dgeTt], but virtue may per- 
haps be a thing not to be taught. The sentence may be ex- 
plained by supplying an omitted verb, as oga, or the like, 
and be rendered literally : but see whether virtue may not 
be, &c. 



§168. PREPOSITIONS. 

681. — Prepositions are used to express the relation in which 
one thing stands to another. For the primary and various de- 
rived meanings of prepositions in different constructions, see § 124. 
The influence they exert over the words with which thev are 
joined, as far as it respects their case, is regulated by the follow- 
ing rules : 

682. — Rule XL VIII. Idvri, dn6,.ix or i£, and 
nqo, govern the genitive only ; as, 

6<p&al[*bg an) ocf&ahioi, an eye for an eye. 



§ 168. PREPOSITIONS. 273 

683. — Eule XLIX. "Ev and avv govern the da- 
tive. 



. 684. — Rule L. Eig (or eg) and dva govern the 
accusative. 

Obs. 1. Avu, among the poets, also governs the dative. 



685. — Rule LI. /Jicc,xutgc, (.itTcc.vnbq, govern 
the genitive or accusative. 

686. — Oh*. 2. MtTu y among the poets, also governs the da- 
a plural noun, or a noun of multitude ; as, fieza ZQiTuroiai 
uraoaiv. 

7. — Rule LII. 'A/utfi, ntQt, em, iraqd, 7i(jog, 
and i)x6 y govern the genitive, dative, or accusa- 
tive. 

• . — For the meaning of the prepositions, as modified by the case 
with which they are j< \ 124. 

. — Obi. ;j. Prepositions are often used as adverbs, their 

oase being understood. This is the case especially with fa in the 

loiuc and nQog in the Attic. Bence, in the Ionic writers, they 

en put twice, once adverbially without a case, and again 

vith a case or in composition with a verb ; as, fa dt xcu fa Mt^i- 

phis also. 

689. — Obs. 4. Prepositions are sometimes separated from 
their < fa */uq ol tij rvxri ravTij dvcuQOficu, In Attic, 

this takes place, according to the rule, with the conjunctions 
Hty, dt, yap, our : a->. 8f ^tv yuo tio^i'i ; — tg fiiv ovv rag Auq- 
pag ; and with TtQog with the genitive when it signifies per. 

690. — Obs. 5. Prepositions are often put after their case, par- 
ticularly by the Ionic and Doric writers, and the Attic poets ; as, 
rtcor uno x<a y.hotdioi: In the Attic prose writers, it takes place 
only in ftqp with the genitive. When so placed, the accent is 
always thrown back to the first syllable ; thus, ano moi> (fee. 

691. — Obs. 6. When a preposition should stand twice with 
two different nouns, it is often put only once by the poets, and 
that too with the second noun ; as, /} a).bg /} tm y7jg, Horn, by 
sea or land. 

692. — Obs. 7. A preposition is frequently understood. 



*274 THE INDICATIVE MOOD. § 169, 170. 

§ 169. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

693. — Rule LIII. A preposition in composition 
sometimes governs the same case as when it stands 
by itself; as, 

i%7jX&e ttjg olxiag, he went out from the house. 

694. — Obs. 1. This is done when the preposition can be sepa- 
rated from the verb, and joined with the substantive, without 
altering the sense. 

695. — 06s 2. In Homer, Herodotus, and other old writers, 
the preposition is frequently found separated by one or more 
words from that with which it may be considered in composition ; 
as, tjiuv dnb Xoiybv dfivvai (II. 1. 67), for j t utv u.7ia\ivvu.i z.o/,0* ; 
unb filv gscovtov (afooug (Herod. 3. 36), for atco'vzbv fuv dxat/.t- 
cag. Hence, when the verb is to be repeated several times, after 
the first time, the proposition only is often used ; as, utto/.u no- 
hv, oLTib de nattqu. Grammarians, however, eonr-ider the prepo- 
sition in such cases as used adverbially, and not properly in com- 
position. Instances of the proper tmesis are very rare, especially 
in the Attic prose writers. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



§170. THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

696. — The indicative mood is used, in Greek, when any thing 
is to be represented as actually existing or happening, And as a 
thing independent of the thought and ideas of the speaker. Hence 
it is often used where the subjunctive, and sometimes the accusa- 
tive with the infinitive, would be used in Latin ; as, 

1. It is used after negative propositions with the relative ; as, 
ovdti'g ian bang rovro 7ioiei, there is no one toho does this. 
Lat. nemo est qui hoc faciat. Lat. Gr. 636. 

2. It is used in indirect interrogations, where the Latin re- 
quires the subjunctive; as, bourt ti noiovfitv, you see what 
we are doing. Lat. vides quid faciamus. Lat. Gr. 62 7. 

3. It is used in quoting the language of another, stating what 
is actual and fact, after bit, cog, *fcc, where the Latin uses the 



§170. THE INDICATIVE MOOT). 275 

accusative with the infinitive, or the subjunctive with quod ; as, 
ijytXlttOtlOi aoXt/iOi tqtvyov, he announced that the enemy were 
feeing. Lat. nunciavit hastes fugere, or hoc nunciavit, quod hos- 
tes fugerent. 

THE INDICATIVE T N CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS. 

697. — The indicative, .n Greek, is used in conditional propo- 
sitions in various ways, as follows : 

1. When the thing supposed in the condition is regarded as 
a fact, and neither contingent nor uncertain, the indicative in any 
tome is toed with it in the condition, followed by the indicative 
or imperative, and sometimes by the subjunctive used impera- 
tively (TOO), without ur in the conclusion ; as, ti tiol fafiol, tiol 
y.ui tftoi, if there air altars, there are also gods ; ti t^oorz^at, 
y.ui fafjuWtr, if it thundered (as it did),// alxu lightened; ti 
(juorrifiki, xu) uotquWii, if it shall thunder, it will also lighten. 
i'his accords with the Latin construction. Lar. Gr. (324-2. 

2. When the thing supposed in the condition is not a fact, or 
when a denial of it is implied, the indicative in the past tenses is 
Bsed with ti in the condition, and with m in the conclusion; 
and here there are thr« • I v/.., 

1 t. When the reference ia t<» present time, or to past and pres- 

ent time, the imperfect tense is used in both parts; as, 8* 71 
ti/tr, tvidav ur, if he hud any thing [now), he would give it. 
Lat. n quid haberet, dant. 

2d. When the reference in both clauses is to past time, the aorist 
must be used instead of the imperfect in both, or, at least, 
in one of them ; as, ti ti tayV9% t'dojv ur, if I had had any 
thing, I would hare given it. Lat. ft quid habuissem, dedis- 
s, in ; oux ur Tznoth-ytr, tt Oil inioTtvotv ul^Otvotiv, he 
would not hare foretold it, unless he had believed he would 
speak the truth. 

3d. When the condition refers to past time, and the conclusion 
to present, tin- indicative aorist with ti is used in the former, 
and the imperfect with ur in the latter; as, ti tfiaxror, tyi- 
yrwaxov ur, if I had learned (then), I should know (now). 

18. — Obs. The indicative without a or uv is sometimes used 
in suppositions, where, in other languages, the subjunctive would 
be put; as, tt&vyxa fjj a% OvyuToi, xui a* an cqXeg 8, suppose 
that I had i!KEN slain bu thy daughter, and ti at she had mads 
an knd of me. 



276 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. § 171, 172 



§171. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

699. — The imperative in Greek is used as in other languages, 
in addresses, entreaties, commands, &c. The pronouns (being 
the nominative) are omitted, except where emphasis or distinc- 
tion is required. In the use of this mood the following peculi- 
arities of construction may be observed ; viz., 

1. The second person sometimes stands for the third ; as, 

alia. cfvXuTtH nag rig, but let each one watch, 
nilag rig i'&t, let some neighbour go. 

2. As in English, the plural is sometimes used for the singu- 
lar ; as, noOGtl-O'tTt, co rial natoi, come, my child, to thy fa- 
ther. Also, sometimes the singular, when more than one perron 
is mentioned ; as, tint fioi, co JEcoxqateg it xal Innoxgartg. 

3. In prohibitions with fit), the present imperative is most 
commonly used. If the aorist is used, \ii\ must be put with the 
subjunctive. The few exceptions to this rule belong to Homeric 
usage. 

4. The imperative after olaxf oti, o!g& o, o1g\P cog, seems to 
be used elliptical ly, and to have arisen from a transposition of 
the imperative; as, ohtf cog noitjGor ; knowest thou in wfuti 
way thou must act ? (i. e. act, knowest thou in what way /) ohtf 
ovv o 8qu.gov ; knowest thou what to do f (i. e. do, knowest thou 
whut-) 

5. Sometimes the imperative is used for the future; as, ti 
ovv; xtiG&co vofiog ; xohat then? shall a law exist t i.e. What 
then? (do you say,) let a law exist? On the other hand, the 
future is still more frequently used for the imperative ; as, yroj- 
ceai JtzQtidtjv Jiya\it\ivova (for yvw&t), recollect Agamemnon, 
Atreus J son. Especially is this the case with a negative inter- 
rogatively ; as, ovxovv p taGtig ; will you not leave me alone ? 
i. e. leave me alone. 



§172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 

700. — The subjunctive and optative moods represent an ac- 
tion, not as actually existing, but rather as dependent upon, and 
connected with, the ideas and feelings of the speaker. The sup- 
junctive represents this dependence as present ; the optative rep- 
resents it as past (197-2). Hence the following general rule : 



§172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 277 

I. The Subjunctive and Optative in Dependent Propositions. 

701. — Rule LIV. In dependent clauses, the 
subjunctive mood is used in connection with the 
'primary tenses ; the optative, with the second- 
ary (199-3) ; as, 

TTUQtifii tvu idco, I am present that I may see. 

naQ/fv ivu i'doifii, 1 was present that I might see. 

On this general principle the whole construction of these 
moods depends, as may be illustrated by the following observa- 
tion-. : 

70^. — Obs. 1. These moods arc used after conjunctions whose 
to introduce ■ subordinate or dependent clause, in which 
actual exi s tence is not definitely expressed ; as, wa, 'uygu, onoog, 
(og ; thus, tih'/.ttg oqg avzog t/ng yt'oag ; do you wish that 
you yourself may have a reward f fiij fi tnt'iit^t, aaoortnog oog 
Mi ra'sj ui , provoke me not, that you may return the safer. This 
sentence, which contains the direct address (oratio direota) of Aga- 
memnon to Chryses, has the subjunctive after djg, in connection 
with the present ios&i^e. When this is afterwards related as a 
vent, in the style of the indirect address (oratio obliqua), the 
subjunctive is changed int<> the optative; thus, umerat txsXevt 
xia iii t ioe&i^ew, wa <f£g otxadt i'XOut, hi commanded him to 
depart and not provoke him, that he might return safe. 

703. — In like manner when a person, without quoting the di- 
rect iiH'junge of another, relates what was said by him, not as 
actual and fact, but as a supposition or the opinion of that per- 
son, as the reference must be to what is past, the optative is 
with on or cog prefixed ; as, "EXt$e pot, ozt >} odog cpt'oot 
tig ri t r nohr, <fec ; he told me, that the road would lead me int 
the ci/y, Arc. Bee also 696-3. 

When on h;is been already expressed, it is often omitted before 
succeeding clauses in the same construction. 

Note. 'On, that, is also used, in Greek, when the words of another 
are quoted without change in direct discourse. It is then equivalent 
to quotation marks only, and is to be omitted in translation; as, unt- 
xoivetTo, otv lictauhiav ovx civ dtSaiprjv, he answered: ^ I will not re- 
tht kingdom; " Ktrwc «»' unoitv, on' SI SatQnaXf^, /<*) &ai'</takf xcx 
Xtyofiirrt, perhaps the it (the laws) miyht say, " O Socrates, wonder not 
at the sayings (lit., things said). 

704. — Obs. 2. When a past event is related in the present 
tune (198, Obs. 1), the verb in the dependent clause may still be 

13 



278 SUBJUNCTIVE AXD OPTATIVE MOODS. § 172. 

in the optative; and in like manner, after the historical tenses, 
the subjunctive is used when the event, though past, vet continues 
in its effects and operation, to, and through, the present time. 
Thus, in the address of Minerva to Diomede, "I removed the 
mist from your eyes that you may distinguish (oyoa ytvaaxr^) a 
deity from a man in the field of battle." Here, however, there 
may be a change of reference, i. e. the subjunctive yivcoGx^g may 
refer, not to the time of the removal, but to the time of the ad- 
dress, as if she had said, " I removed the mist from your eyes 
that you may from this time forward distinguish," <fcc. Such 
changes of reference are not uncommon in all languages. 

705. — Obs. 3. It was noticed, 197, Obs. 3, that the future in- 
dicative is used in a subjunctive sense. Accordingly it is often 
found in a dependent clause, especially after oTzcog, in the same 
construction as the subjunctive ; as, " Cyrus deliberates (o7i(oc 
^nore szi sgzui) how he may no longer be subject to his brother 
but, if possible, (fiuGilevGH) may reign in his stead." £xexztor 
— O7zcog aa(fa).hOzaia UTZicofiav (subj.), xui oncog to. imzifitiu 
QofiEv (fut.), We ought to consider how we may get away most 
safly, and obtain the necessary supplies. 

706. — Obs. 4. After adverbs of time, when the precise point 
of time is not determined but left indefinite, the subjunctive and 
optative are used. These are inrp, incidap, orav, onozav, refer- 
ring indefinitely tQ the present, and so followed by the subjunc- 
tive — insif inttdij, oze, bnozz, referring indefinitely to the past, and 
followed by the optative ; as, " Menelaus entertained him when 
(from time to time) he came from Crete," oxoze K^rjr^ep 
ixnizo. Here onozs, Knrizrftsv iixezo would mean, when he actu- 
ally came from Crete. The primary part of the sentence, then, 
may be considered as understood, — when it happened, — that he 
came from Crete. 

707. — Obs. 5. When the relatives og, oGzig, oiog, otzov, <fce. 
refer to definite persons or things, and to what actually took 
place, they are followed by the indicative mood. But if the per- 
son or thing to which they refer is indefinite, and the whole pro- 
position affirms of past time, then the verb is in the optative 
without av ; as, ovzira pep paodfjct xr/euj, whatever monarch he 
found ; Tzavzag ozcp ivzv%oi£v — xrmovz eg, slaying all whomsoever 
they might meet. On the other hand, if the proposition affirms 
something of present or future time, the verb is in the subjunctive 
with av ; as, h // d' ar rear cpvlmr nleTazoi xogi, <ire., m which- 
soever of the tribes there may be the greatest number, tire. ; £7T£6&£ 



§ 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 279 

onoi (tv rig ifftji at , follow where (it is possible that) any one may 
fead the way. In such sentences the primary part may be under- 
stood, such as M it i^ possible that," " it happened that," &c. 

II. The Subjunctive and Optative in Independent Propositions. 

708. — Obs. 6. Both the subjunctive and optative are used 
without being preceded by another verb, and so apparently in 
independent clauses. In all such instances, however, there is an 
ellipsis of the verb on which they depend. 
709. — I. The subjunctive is thus used, 

mmand in the first person; as, itouev, let us go, i.e. 
it is necessary that we go ; and so of others. 
2d. In forbidding, with at) or its compounds in the aorist, not in 

the present ; as, fir t ofioang, swear not. 

3d. In deliberating with one's s.-lf ; as, not rQancouai, whither 

shall I tarn ; t'xMutr /] otyujutr, shall we speak or be silent. 

710. — II. The optative is thus used, 

1-t. I a a wish or prayer; as, rovro pq vtvoiro, that 

this might vot be. In this ease tide, ti, (og, nojg uv, are 

often used with the optative. 

. gnsh relating t-> what is past, or that cannot be realized, is 
-.-«! by the indicative <>t' the historical tenses, with ufrt, tiff ti 
f, prefixed; ;i-. tX&i 9vn»xo9 f.v, would that it were possible. — Or, 

by the - aorist indicative "t' o^tlXtt (<'/</ .-/.or, ->,-, -?, 200-8.) with the 
iiitiiii' mid that I had never done it I il 

t tXt 0<iruv, thai he had ■: 

2d. In connection with <a; to express doubt, conjecture, bare pos- 
sibility ; as, rtiig ur elev roiti-u, they were perhaps (or, it is 
probable that ting were) shepherds ; and in volitions, to ex- 
press, not a lixt- d resolution, but only an inclination to a 
thing ; as, ffittag uv {reaaaifinv, I would gladly see them. 

3d. To express a definite assertion with politeness or modesty; 
as, mrg ijxti ov8* <lv tj$oi dtvgo, he has not come, and 
will not oomi back ; i. e. I rather think it was his purpose 
that he would not come back. 

4th. Sometimes it is used for the imperative, to convey a com- 
mand or request in milder terms ; as, %(6ooig av efaa, you 
may go in, i.e. go in. 

5th. It is sometimes used for the indicative, to give an air of in- 
determiaatenesfl to the circumstances of an action which is 
determinate in itself; as, rwv recav ag xaradvoeiav, the ships 
which they may (or might) have sunk ; i. e. which 'hey have 
sunk. 



280 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. § 172. 

6th. It is also used in a potential sense, to denote power or vo- 
lition ; as, ova av Se fiEivEiag avroi ; could you not with- 
stand him ? i&eXijGeiGp av ; would he be williny ? 

ITT. The Subjunctive and Optative in Conditional Propositions. 

711. — Obs. 7. The use of the indicative in conditional propo- 
sitions has been noticed, 697. The subjunctive and optative are 
also used in conditional propositions, as follows : 
1st. Uncertainty in the condition, with an actual result, is ex- 
pressed by lav with the subjunctive in the condition, and 
the indicative future or imperative in the conclusion ; as, 
lav n 8%G)pEv 8c6go[i£v, if we have any thing we will give 
it ; lav zi E^yg, dog, if you have any thing, give it. 
2d. A mere hypothetical supposition with a determinate result, 
puts the condition in the optative with et, and the result in 
the indicative ; as, ovg eoei ryg vvarog TTaoayEVEOrrai nav- 
GToaua, el ti aqa fit) 7TQ0%cQQ0i'n toTg icskekv&oGt, who 
were to come in the night -with the whole army, if success 
should not attend those who had entered. On the contra- 
ry, an actual case supposed in the condition with a hypo- 
thetical result, would require the first in the indicative with 
fit', and the last in the optative ; as, et yao [u;8e tavza oJda, 
xa\ Kov avdoanoocov cpavloiEoog av Ei'nv , if I did not know 
these things, I should be more worthless than tlie slaves. 
3d. When the case is altogether hypothetical, the condition is 
expressed by the optative with fit, and the result by the op- 
tative with av ; as, ei rig -zavta noaxxoi, fuya \i av 
(oq)El?]GEi£, if any one should do this he would greatly 
assist me. 

Sometimes the subjunctive with lav or av, instead of the 

optative, is put in the condition. 

712. — Obs. 8. All conditional propositions in Greek may be 

tuned into the infinitive or participle with av, as, oiovzai ava- 

pa%EG&ai av avfifidyovg nooghifiovzEg, " they think tliey might 

retrieve their fortune in war if they should obtain allies? 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

713. — The infinitive mood expresses the meaning of the verb 
in a general and unlimited manner, without the distinctions of 
number or person, 197-4. In construction it may be considered 



§ 173, 174. INFINITIVE WITHOUT SUBJECT. 281 

under the four following divisions : viz., as a verbal noun ; — with- 
out a subject, as the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or 
adjective ; — with a subject ; — absolutely after certain particles. 



§173. I. THE INFINITIVE AS A VERBAL NOUN. 

714. — The infinitive, with the neuter article prefixed, 403-14, 
is used as a verbal noun, in all the cases except the vocative ; 
and, as such, is subject to the same rules of construction as the 
noun, being used in the nominative as the subject of a verb, and 
governed, in the oblique cases, by verbs or prepositions. 

715. — Obs. 1. When the infinitive, with, or without, a clause, 
is used as the nominative to a verb, or the accusative governed 
by it, it is frequently without the article ; very rarely so after a 
preposition ; as, naaiv ijfiiv xaz&ursiv ocpeitezeu, dying is due to 
all of us. 

716. — Obs. 2. Not only the simple infinitive, but the infini- 
tive with the whole clause to which it belongs,, may often be re- 
garded as a substantive, and stand in almost every variety of 
construction in which a substantive can be placed ; as, Nom. to 
Tobg u.vd()(o7Tov^ dfiaozdmv ovdlp {ravfiao'zov (iazt), that men 
should err is nothing wonderful ; Gen. into zov (irfitva ano~ 
•ttn'tGxuv, that no one might perish ; Dat. iva am^Koai zq> ifis 
TtTtptjo&ui vTto datuovojv, that they may disbelieve my having 
been honoured by the gods ; Ace. exytsa zb p/ naliv £X.&eiv t I 
determined not to come again. 

717. — Obs. 3. With the article alone, the infinitive is gener- 
ally equivalent to the Latin gerund ; as, trsxa tov 7Jyeiv y causa 
dicendi ; iv zcp Xt'ytiv, dicendo ; nobg to Xtytiv, ad dicendum. 

718. — Obs. 4. Without the article, it has often the force of 
the Latin supine ; as, yX&8 £>/z7/ffca, venit qucesitum ; ifiv daov- 
£w, Suave audita ; a'toj^iazog ocp&tjvcu, turpissimus visu. 



§174. n. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT. 

719. — Rule LV. One verb, being the subject 
of another, is put in the infinitive ; as, 

cpeiysiv avzoTg dacpaXtazsgov ianr, to fly is. safer for them. 



282 INFINITIVE WITHOUT SUBJECT. § 174. 

720. — Rule LVI. One verb governs another 
as its object, in the infinitive ; as, 

rjo^aro tiyuvy he began to say. 
Rem. Both these rules apply to the infinitive with a subject, § 175. 

721. — Rule LVEt. The infinitive mood is gov- 
erned by adjectives denoting fitness, ability, capa- 
city, and the contrary ; as, 

deivbg fo'yetv, powerful in speaking. 

a£iog ftuvftdoca, worthy to be admired. 

Note. It is also used after substantives ; as, ilovoiav ytvta&cu, 
power to become. 

722. — Obs. 1. The infinitive under these rules is in the same 
clause with, and expresses the cause, end, or object, of the action, 
state, or quality expressed by, the verb or adjective that governs 
it. The verbs that govern the infinitive directly in this way are 
such as denote desire, ability, intention, endeavour, and the like ; 
as, i&eXsi yodqtiv, he wishes to write ; dt'opai aov D.&tiv, I beg 
of you to come. 

723. — Ob* 2. The infinitive is sometimes placed after verbs, 
to express the design or consequence of that which they affirm. 
Thus used it is governed, not by the verb, but by some such word 
as mate understood ; as, iyojp ode nana, naQecxtiv, i. e. axjze 
ndvza naQ£6%£iv y I am here (so as) to furnish all things ; gxopci' 
(wcrrt) fiavirdrtiv, we have come (in order) to learn. 

724. — Obs. 3. After a verb or adjective, a verb denoting an 
incidental object not directly in view, is put in the infinitive 
with gxjzs ; as, yiXoztuozazog ifv ware ndvza vno/nenai, he was 
very ambitious, so as to endure all things, <fcc. This construction 
takes place especially after such words as zoaovzog, zoiovzog, ov- 
rtog t and the like. 

725. — Obs. 4. The infinitive is sometimes put after verbs or 
adjectives which indicate some state or quality, in order to ex- 
press the respect in which that state or quality obtains, and would 
be expressed in Latin by the supine, or gerund in do, and in En- 
glish, by the substantive ; as, 

cog 1 8 sir scpauezo, as it appeared to the sight. 

&EiEiv cin'iioimv 6/.ioTot, like the winds ra running. 
ovds noovqaivez tdto&at, nor did he app ear to the sight. 



§ 175. INFINITIVE WITH SUBJECT. 283 

726. — Ob*. 5. The infinitive active is used often in Greek in 
the sense of the latter supine, or infinitive passive in Latin ; as, 

dvtjQ nacor qvh'iijdeu; a man is more easy tube guarded against. 
Quoiu Tiottu, things easy to be done. 



§175. III. TIIK INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 

7 '11. — 1. A subordinate or dependent clause containing a verb 
and its subject, is connected with the leading or primary clause, in 
tw<> ways. Fikst, by a conjunctive particle, such as on, wg, and 
tiif like ; as, Xtyown on 6 izaiQog refhnpte, they say that our corn- 
Here the verb is finite, and its subject in the nom- 
inate \n, without a conjunction ; as, h'yovai ror tzalQOV 
pat, they say that our companion is dead. In this case, the 
rerb is in the infinitive, and its subject, usually in the accusative. 
3. — 2. Sometimes both modes of expression are united in 
me sentence; as, fori ).6yog wg Ev(t%ys SKOfufcro ig 
tijpjfaiqp' rr).(oorza de fur urtfiov ^.ZQVftovujv vnolafieiv. 
imes a sentence begins with the one form and ends with 
the other; n v" /,//«>, cuupdwov j3iof £<o{iev s they say 
that we live " life fret from danger ; as if it had been intended 
j OVGI o i t u(ig uAiibviov jftof £jp ; 735. 
The construction of the subordinate clause connected by the 
first method mentioned above, is subject to the rules §§138, 139; 
connected bv the second, it comes under the rules that follow : 



729. — Rule LVIII. The infinitive mood in a 
dependent clause, has its subject in the accusative ; 

rove Osovg nurza eidtvai el^yev, he said that the gods knew all 
things. 

730. — Exc. When the subject of the infinitive 
is the same with the subject of the preceding verb, 
it is put by attraction in the same case ; as, 

Icrn thai ozoazifi'og, he said that he was a general. 

731. — 3. In this construction, the subject of the infinitive is 
generally omitted, except -when emphasis is required ; as, sqpij 
uvzbg ewcu OTgarjfi'og, ovx ixetvovg, he said that he was a gene* 



284 INFINITIVE WITH SUBJECT. § 175. 

ral, that tiiey were not generals. This construction has been 
frequently imitated in Latin ; thus, Sensit medios delapsus in 
hostes. Virg. Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis. Hor. 

732. — Obs. 1. In a few instances, constructions vary both 
from the rule and the exception. Occasionally, the subject of 
the infinitive is in the nominative, when it signifies a different 
thing from the subject of the preceding verb, and in the accusa- 
tive, when it signifies the same. 

733. — Obs. 2. If the subject of the infinitive be the same with 
the object of the preceding verb, it may either be in the accusa- 
tive according to the rule, or stand before the infinitive, in the 
case governed by the preceding verb ; thus, 

xsXeva) (70i tovto noiuv, or ) T , , ,, 

, / ~ w command you to do this. 

HtltVCO oe tovto noiuv, j * 

734. — In either case there is an ellipsis ; — in the first form, of 
o~e, the immediate subject of the infinitive ; and in the second, of 
coi, the remote object of the preceding verb. Both these modes 
of construction are common, and sometimes they are intermixed 
in the same sentence ; thus, Lysias, dt'opai vficor ta dr/.aiu \i't t ~ 
cpiaacxrai, ivxrvfiovfiiivovg on, x.t.L, I beg of you to deter- 
mine, justly considering that, etc. Here vfiojv stands before 
the infinitive governed in the genitive by dtoj.ua, and yet Iv&v- 
liovfitvovg follows in the accusative, evidently agreeing with vpag 
the subject of the infinitive understood. With equal propriety, it 
might have been put in the genitive. 

735 — Rem. Constructions of this kind, in -which the end of a sen- 
tence does not grammatically correspond to the beginning, are called 
anacolutha. For other examples of this, see 535 and 726. The most 
common form of auacoluthon appears to be, when the speaker commen- 
ces a period in the manner required by the preceding discourse, but 
afterwards, especially after a parenthetic clause, passes over into ano- 
ther construction. This method of construction, hovrever, is never 
adopted by Greek writers unless something is thereby gained in con- 
ciseness, perspicuity, smoothness, or emphasis. 

736. — Obs. 3. AYhen used in the passive voice, the subject of 
the infinitive is changed into the subject of the preceding verb, 
or it remains unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb being 
used impersonally ; as, 

Cyrus is said to have been ) jT . ,-, . 

rf • ■ j 4i, * n r the son of Cambyses. 

It is said that Cyrus was J * 



§176. INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 285 

737. — Obs. 4. The same observation is true of the verb doxei; 
thus, foxes uvzbg ehou, he seems to be ; or doxn avzbv uvai y it 
seems that he is. The following sentence unites the two : xai 
vk* *i7Y*l*&i ?' £ >/ puX'l l(5 X v Qu- ytyonveu xai noXXovg 
7 £& rurui, and indeed it was said that the battle was obsti- 
nate, and that many died. In like manner, the adjectives dixai- 
og, d?j).o$, yareoog, &c, with the verb etui, are used for the neuter 
gender with iozi, as im personals ; thus, dixatog eifu, for dixaiov 
tan, Ac, it is just that I, etc. ; dtjlog loziv y for dTfl.OV ioTiv av- 
tov — , it is manifest that he — . 755. 

738. — Obs. 5. The case after the infinitive of a copulative verb 
(437), must be the Bame with the case before it, if the word re- 

i the Bame thing (438) ; as, Nom. ecprj (avzbg) thai OToazn- 
yog, he said that he was a general ; Gen. xuztyrcoxozcov i'jdn p,?]- 
xtzi xq Et(7(7 or (or tirat, having horned that they are no longer 

lior; Dat-«jj' /,/</> eczl to iftieix&oi elv a t, it depends 
upon i - to hi; reasonable. And this observation holds 

good whether the word before the infinitive be its proper subject, 
or (that being omitted, 731), the subject or the object of the pre- 
ceding verb, 

8. \V)iat< • H.juired before the infinitive 

by the precedii I continues the same though preceded 

b\ tog or ohirt, <»r a preposition, because the preposition affects 
not the Bubject of the infinitive, hut helongs to the infinitive it- 
Bel£ or to the whole clause ; thus, ovdtig zt^.txovzog e'azco nag 
vfiir (oazt zovg rnuovg naoafyaq fiq dourut dtxtjv, let no one 

jrtai among you, thai, breaking the laws, he can go unpun- 
isked ; ^(tiurayor via rb [iij oocpol sit at, they erred be- 

IHI.V WERE NOT WISE. 



§176. IV. TUE 1X1IX1TIVE ABSOLUTE. 
740. — Rule LIX. The infinitive is often put 
absolutely with the particles cog, coots, nqiv, ci%Qh 
ut/ni, ikc., before it ; as, 

tog idefo ur{>o(o7Tor, when the man saw. 

noir u7Tolhcrtir rb Tiatfiwr, before the child died. 

tog yixobr peydhn dxaoat, to compare small with great. 

741. — 06s. 1. 'Qg, with the infinitive, is frequently used to 
limit a proposition in the sense of "as far as ;" thus, tog epe et> 

13* 



286 THE PARTICIPLE. §177 

fisfivtjad'ai, as far as 1 recollect distinctly ; <ng ye poi doxfJv, as 
it seems to me. But cog is frequently omitted ; hence such ex- 
pressions as, ov 7ioll(p X6yq> sinew, in few words ; [ilxqov dui' t 
little is wanting, almost ; noXKov dew, muck is wanting. 

742. — Obs. 2. The infinitive is often used for the imperative 
mood, ooa, fiXt7ze, axo7iei, &c. being understood; as, %alQEif 
pera %gu.q6vt<ov, xlaie.iv fuzu xXaiovzcov, rejoice with them 
that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep. Sometimes, also, 
for the optative, bog, #$.«, or £v%o[iai, being understood ; as, 
co Zev ixysvea&ai fioi Jl&qvaiovg tiouo&cu, Jupiter, may 
it be granted to me to punish the Athenians : — sometimes ex- 
pressed ; as, ra Zev, dog ps tigouj&m [ioqov nazoog. 

743. — Obs. 3. The infinitive uvea is sometimes absolute and 
redundant, both with and without the article ; viz., 
1st. After adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions; thus, ixav elvai 
for ixcov, willing ; as, exow av eivai zovzo 7ioujoai[ii y J 
would willingly do this. So the phrases, zo Gv\inav drat, 
generally ; as y efoai, with respect to you ; to [itv z/jfiegov 
shot, to-day at least ; xaza zovzo slvai, with respect to this ; 
zb vvv shea, now ; zb in ixeivoig etvai, as far as depends 
on them. 
2d. After verbs of calling, choosing, making, &c. ; as, GoquoT^r, 
6vo[xd£ovGi ys zbv avdga ehatj they call the man a philoso- 
pher ; ol 8s avfipaxop fuv eD.ovro mat, they chose him as 
an ally (598). 



§177. THE PARTICIPLE, 201. 

744. — Rule LX. Participles, like adjectives, 
agree with their substantives in gender, number, 
and case, 372. 

745. — Rule LXI. Participles govern the case 
of their own verbs ; as, 

ol noXifuoi to Xoytov eldozeg, the enemies knowing the oracle, 
zovzav ifiov dtofitrov, I being in want of these things. 

746. — The Greek language, having a participle in every tense 
of every voice, uses it much more extensively than the Latin. 



§ 177. THE PARTICIPLE. 287 

The principal purposes for which it is employed are the follow- 
ing- : 

747. — I. A participle is joined with another verb agreeing 
with its subject, for the following purposes; viz., 

1st. Simply to connect an accompanying with the main action 
in the same subject. Thus used, the participle and verb 
are to be rendered as two verbs with a conjunction ; as, 
TTUQt'lftcoi' zi^ titizdzco, let any one come forward and shew. 

2d. To combine the accompanying with the main action as the 
cause, manner, or means of accomplishing it; in which use 
it is equivalent to the ablative gerund in Latin, as in the 
following examples. 

Cause; as, Ti ftoiijaag xuztyrcoirrj Saratov; for having 
done what [quid faciendo\ was he condemned to die? 

IfzANS; as, tv toy trav uvzovg BXTr7od{iip>, I gained them by 
kindness (bene faciendo) \ Xr(i^6^tvoi £waiv, they lice by 
plunder {poptUctndo). 

Manner; as, fpsvymv r/.qtiyti, he escapes by flight (fugien- 
do)\ woX/iijaag ugipL&t, he went in boldly (audendo). 
This construction is found also in Latin writers ; thus, Hoc 
fattens drum melius, lion, by doing this I shall live bet- 
ter ; as if, hoc faciendo, oVc. 

Note. Tht> participle thus used agrees with the agent in any case ; 
e.g. in the dative ; as, a roTq a. v frown ok; tdo>xav ol &toi /' adovfru 
i)tu/.nivHr, which the gods have put it in the power of men to find out by 
BTUDT; the accusative; as, « Vucmv dott^/ntjffavtaq y /^to //(Tartar r t 
(TTrfTarTai; tldivcu] which wc may know by counting, by measuring, or by 
weighing. 

3d. It is used, to limit a general expression, by intimating the 
action in respect of which the assertion is made; as, abixtizt 
noXiuov dnyorztg, ye do wrong in beginning the war. 

748. — Obs. 1. In this way, the participle is used with verbs 
that signify any emotion of the mind, to show the cause of the 
emotion; as, rfiouai fitv a tigidcov, lam rejoiced at seeing 
you; ovdtnozt ooi utzauth'jGti tv Tzou'jGavTi, you will never 
repent of having done a kindness. 

749. — II. The participle is used for the purpose of further de- 
scribing a person or thing mentioned in a sentence, and may be 
rendered by the relative and the verb ; or for connecting with a 
statement, some relation of time, cause, or condition, expressed in 
English by such words as when, while, after that; — because, 
since, as; — if, although, <fcc. ; — the rela'ion intended, and of 



288 THE PARTICIPLE. § 177 

course the proper rendering of the participle, will generally have 
to be ascertained from the nature of the sentence itself, or from 
the connection in which it stands ; thus, s7Z£6xe7Z76[A,r j v rhv srai- 
qov vogovvtcc, may signify, according to the context, I visited 
my comrade who was sick ; or when, or because, he was sick ; 
otvoqa pev Tprj&tvTa ra^mg (pvsrat, trees, though lopped 

(WHICH HAVE BEEN LOPPED, AFTER THEY HAVE BEEN LOPPED, 

when lopped, as to their branches), quickly grow again. 

750. — Obs. 2. When the article precedes the participle refer- 
ring to a word already expressed or easy to be supplied, the two 
may be rendered by the relative and the indicative ; as, 6 f££0- 
pevog, he that cometh, 402-8. 

75 1 . — Note. The participle, with the article before it, is frequently 
equivalent to a noun designating the doer of the action expressed by 
the verb ; as, ot yoaxpanivot, 2o)xqaxtjv, the accusers of Socrates. There 
is, however, this difference ; the participle expresses the doer in a state 
of action, the substantive does not ; thus, 6 doTXoq is a man in the con- 
dition of a slave ; 6 6ov).fimv is one, at the time referred to, performing 
the part of a slave. 

The Participle as the Infinitive. 

752. — III. The participle, in Greek, is often used as the in- 
finitive, and has for its subject, according to the sense, either the 
subject or the object of the preceding verb, with which it always 
agrees in gender, number, and case. 

753. — In the construction of the participle with its subject, 
there occur the following varieties; vis., 

1st. The participle takes as its subject, the subject of the pre- 
ceding verb, and agrees with it in the nominative or accusa- 
tive ; as, Nominative, ov navcopca yodqeov, I will not cease 
to write ; olda frvntbg ««•, / know that I am a mortal 
Accusative, as Xfyovmv avzbv pqu rq a &w 7zoi/' t oatta, they 
say that lie remembers having done it, or, that he did it. 
2d. The participle agrees -with the immediate object of the pre- 
ceding verb as its subject, in the accusative : as, oaqcog xa- 
tsfjia&ov cpagfiaxa avzbv Vfilv ey/Javra, I plainly perceived 
that he had infused poison for you. 
3d. The participle agrees with the remote object of the verb as 
its subject, in the genitive or dative. Genitive, as, t)o&6- 
unv avTwv olofisrGjp eJrcu ffocpoordtmr, I perceived that they 
fancied themselves to be very wise ; Dative, uifitnozt pftro- 
fuhjas (ioi 6ty};G<xvUj I never repented of having been silent, 
or, that I was silent. 



§ 177. THE PARTICIPLE. 289 

4th. When the verb is followed by a reflexive pronoun, the par- 
ticiple may agree either with the pronoun or the nominative 
to the verb ; as, ovvotoa ifiavzm ufxaQzavoov or dfiaozdvovzt, 
I am conscious that I am doing wrong ; iavzbv ovdslg o/io- 
Xoyel xaxovgyog cov, or, xaxovqyov 6vza t nobody confesses 
that he himself is wicked. 

754. — Obs. 3. The verbs after which the participle is thus 
used, are 1st. Verbs of sense; as, to see, hear, <fcc. 2. Verbs de- 
noting any act or feeling of the mind ; as, to know, perceive, dis- 
cern, consider, observe, experience, shew, recollect. 3. Verbs sig- 
nifying to overlook, to permit, to happen, to persevere, bear, en~ 
dure, to be pleased or contented with, to cease, and to cause to 
cease. 

755. — It is used, also, with adjectives signifying clearness; as, 
87 { ).og tt Gvxocfuviodi', it is clear that you are a sycophant. Some- 
time on with the indicative is used ; as, ivdqXog cov on ijond^ezo, 
by its being manifest that he loved, 737. 

756. — Obs. 4. [natead of the participle with the verbs men- 
tioned above, the infinitive is sometimes used; but in that case, 
the idea expressed is usually different ; e.g., 1. aloyyvo\iai nou]- 
aag, I<i//> lone it ; atoxinopai not t fiat, I am 

ashamed to do it, and therefore will not. 2. 6 £«/xgj*> r^azo 
•ywofuvog, the is come on, had actually commenced ; 6 

■/tif.tcor "jQX** yfyvM&tti, the winter was beginning to come on, 
bur had not yet arrived. 3. tjxovoa zbv /Jrjpoo&s'vn Xtyovza, 1 
heard Demosthenes speak; tptowta zbv /Jrj^ioo&tvrj Xt'yeiv, 1 
heard (i. e. I am told), that Demosthenes says. 4. icpawezo 
xXaicor, he evidently wept ; iqiai'vezo xXatttv, he seemed to weep, 
5. With verbs to declare, to announce, the participle represents 
the thing announced as a fact, the infinitive, as matter of report, 
but n< d as a fact. With many verbs, however, it is in- 

different which construction is used; as, ^vficpogov iozi zavza 
TznuX&^rui, or zavza Svpcpood ton 7iQa%&tvza f it is unfortunate 
that these things were done. 

757. — Obs. 5. After verbs of motion, the future participle is 
used to point out the design or object of the motion expressed by 
the verb, and is rendered by the English phrase "in order to ;" 
as, 08 ye didd^av agiiijfiai, I have hastened forward in order 

TO TEACH THEE. 

758. — In this construction wg is often interposed before the 
participle ; as, naoeoxevd&tTO cag aoXefiijOovzeg, they prepared 
to make war. 



290 THE PARTICIPLE. § 177, 

759. — Sometimes the present participle is used in this way ; 
as. TttfiTiei fit qitoovza, he sent me to carry. The future partici- 
ple after tgyopai, is only a circumlocution for the future tense ; 
as, to%op,at tyQUGwv, for (podaw, I will speak ; tnyopai uTio&a- 
vovptvog, I shall die, or, / am about to die. 

760. — IV. Joined with Xav&dvco, cpxruva, zvyyuraj, diaztXico, 
&c, the participle is used to express the main action or state, and 
rendered in the indicative, while the verb with which it is joined, 
expressing a subordinate circumstance, is often rendered as an 
adverb; thus, ela&ev vnexqjvyojv, he escaped unperceived ; zbf 
(porta Xav&dfti fiooxcov, he unconsciously feeds his murderer ; 
tcpftnv dcptXoov, I took it away just before ; tzvytv dmow, he went 
away accidentally ; tzvypv naqorztg, they were accidentally pres- 
ent ; diaztXti naQcov, he is continually present. 

761 — Note. The participle iov is wanting with adjectives, and some 
times without them ; as, Tvyyavtv x<*Mj ( sc - ovgcl), she happens to be 
beautiful. With a negative, q&ctvo) may be rendered scarcely, no soon 
er ; as, ova eytytjo-av nvfrojutvoh they no sooner heard Sometimes it i? 
followed by the infinitive instead of the participle ; as, novt^oq ar 
qi&datt,i Ti/.fVTtjaat, ftqh, x. r. /., a wretched man would sooner die than^ 
&c. 

762. — Obs. 6. In the same sense, these verbs stand sometimes 
in the participle with other finite verbs ; as, una ztiytog dXzo 
Xa{row, he sprung unobserved from the wall ; iprng zvyy/ucov 
vntaybyLrp ', which I happened to promise. 

763. — V. A participle with the verbs tiui, yivoficu, vxaoyco, 
tyw, and //xw, is often used as a circumlocution for the verb to 
which it belongs, and these verbs take the place of auxiliaries; 
thus, nQofitfitjy.oztg tjaap for nQOtpt^fj/.tioav, they had gone for- 
ward ; yi^iag tyttg for tyrjiiag, you have married ; davfidoag 
t%& for rt&aviiaxa, 1 have admired, <fec. 

764 — Obs. 7. Instead of a simple verb signifying " to go 
away," the verb oryopai is frequently joined with a participle ; 
the former, to express the idea of departure ; the latter, to con- 
nect with it the idea of the manner, both of which may generally 
be rendered by a simple verb ; thus, orytx unoTJzdy.trog, he de- 
parted flying, i. e. he flew away ; qrytzo tpetymr, he departed 
fleeing, he escaped ; wyorzo dno-th'orztg, they ran away ; ofyeza* 
-fravciw, he is dead. Homer uses fiairco in the same manner. 

765. — VI. The participle, in definitions of time, is often joined 
with the adverbs avzixa, ei'&vg, ptzazv, aiia, the last with the 
dative ; as, tog avztxa ytroptrog, as soon as he teas born ; p*ia%v 



§ 178. THE CASE ABSOLUT!. 291 

oQvaocor, during the digging ; ufia zcp jjgi iv&bg a^oy^Vq), on 
the first commencement of spring. 

766. — VII. The participles of some verbs, when joined with 
other verbs, appear to be used in an adverbial sense, or at least, 
to denote a circumstance which, in our language, is better ex- 
■ 1 by an adverb ; as, aQ'^ofiefog ilnov, I said in the begin- 
ning ; d^dfteyog ano, especially ; rehvToJv, lastly ; dialmav 
IQOiory afi time. (frtQcov and aycov with verbs which 

signify to give, to place, and the like, are redundant; as, qt'gow 
dujxt, he gave; — with verbs of motion (ftgtav expresses zeal, 
quickness, &c : with their cases, they are equivalent to the Latin 
c urn, with, A participle joined to its own verb, or to one of sim- 
ilar signification, appears to be redundant; as, iaaiv i'ovTsg, they 
went ; i'crn h'ycor, he said ; Xtya <pdg, he says. 

ggT For the dative of the participle with a personal pronoun 
after the verb tan', see 540. 



§178. THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

767. — Rule LXII. A substantive with a par- 
ticiple whose c.usf depends on no other word, is 
put in the genitive abeoktfe ; as, 

Qeov d&OPTog, ovdtp la^vst qOorog, when god gives, envy 
U nothing. 

! ,,v — /«'< hi. The genitive i> said to be absolute, in this construction, 
. -•• it i.~ neither governed by, nor is dependent on, any word ex- 
1 or understood, in the sentence with which it is connected, and 
might be separated from it, without affecting its construction. Yet, 
strictly speaking, it is nut really absolute in such a sense as to be with- 
out government, or that there is no more reason for its being in the 
genitive than in any other case ; for the absolute clause will generally 
be found to express a circumstance of time, and so may come under 642 ; 
as, 

Kvqoi fiaaifovovroq, in the reign of Cyrus (sc. tni). 

&toby\'r,<; oo'>*tTcu (-ittov &i)j)vTi>)v, Theaynes is safe from the gods 

WILLING IT. 

769. — Obs. 1. The participles of elfii, ylvofiai, and some 
others, are frequently omitted ; as, ifiov uovng, sc ovang, I being 
alone. 

770. — Obs. 2. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, as if 
it were a noun, is used absolutely with the participle ; as, nvq 



\ 



292 CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. §179. 

nvuv zovg ravgovg, [iv&oXoyrj&evzog, that bulls breathe fire, being 
circulated as a story. 

771. — Obs. 3. The dative absolute i3 used to express the 
fixed time (see 641); as, tizquovti ds rep inavrtn, after the year 
had elapsed ; and also when the subject of the participle may be 
considered as that in reference to which the action of the verb 
takes place. 

772. — Obs. 4. The nominative and accusative are some- 
times used absolutely. These instances, however, probably arise 
from an omission of some words, which, being supplied, complete 
the construction ; as, dvofeavreg rov ocoparog nooovg, nahv 
ytvetai to tzvq, when they have opened the pores of the body, there 
is again fire ; i. e. cog dvoi^avreg cogi, &c. ; ravra ytvo^uva, 
these things being done ; i. e. fitzu ravra, Arc. 

773. — Obs. 5. The participles of impersonal verbs, and other 
rerbs used impersonally, are put absolutely in the nominative or 
accusative neuter ; as, iiov, it being permitted ; dt'or, it being 
necessary ; doxovv, since it seems proper ; thus, did xl fitrntg, 
i<;bv dmwat, why dost thou remain, it being in thy power to 
depart ? 

774. — Obs. 6. The construction with the participle is often 
preceded by the particles cog, coare, are, oicc, dr'j, oiov, when a 
reason of something done by another is expressed ; as, iaicona 
cog ndvrag ddorag, or ndvrcov etdorcov, he held his peace be- 
cause ALL KNEW. 



§179. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

775. — Conjunctions serve to connect words or sentences to- 
gether ; this connection is of two kinds : 

776. — I. Of the parts of a sentence which are complete of 
themselves and independent of each other. These are connected 
by conjunctions, simply connective or disjunctive, 332-1, 2 ; and 
the parts thus connected have a similar construction : hence, 

777. — Rule LXIII. Conjunctions couple the 
same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns 
and pronouns ; as, 

?lXd~ov xai eldov, they came and saw. 

rifia rbv narioct xal rip unreoct, honour thy father and thy 
mother. 



§ 179. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 293 

778. — Obs. 1. To this rule there are many exceptions as it 
respects the tenses of verbs ; see an example, 198, Obs. 3. 



779. — II. But the parts of a compound sentence are often 
variously related, and have a certain dependence upon each other, 
the nature of which is indicated by the conjunction employed, 
and the mood of the verb with which it is joined. The general 
principles of this connection are expressed in the following rules : 

780. — Rule LXIV. Conjunctions which do not 
imply doubt or contingency, are for the most part 
joined with the indicative mood (696, 697) ; as, 

ovzoi ti gtfttf avdotg dya&oi, ovx av note tuvza tnuajovj 
if t/n.se had BEEN <jood men, they would never have suf- 
l these things. 



781. — Rule LXV. Conjunctions which imply 
doubt or contingency, or which do not regard a 
thing 88 actually existing, are for the most part 
joined with the 8tibjv/nctive and optative moods 
(§172); as, 

tt zig uineaiv pot doiq, if any one should give me the 
choice. 

782. — Obs. 2. As the meaning of a conjunction varies in dif- 
ferent connections, the same conjunction is often found with dif- 
ferent moods. On this subject no very definite or satisfactory 
pules can be given 

783. — The particles ydo, dat, 6'//, denote, eita, eneita, xai, 
:iiv often used QO( so much to connect, as to give strength to a 
question, like the English then, but, yet. 

784. — The Greeks do not distinguish direct and indirect ques- 
tions, like the Latins, by different moods (Lat. Gr. 627-5). In 
Greek, the direct question is usually made by the definite inter- 
rogative particles nwg y notenog, note, nov, noi, ntivr/.a, rig, &c. 
--the indirect by oncog, oioztQog, onote, onov, onoi, bmjvUa, 
oazig, &c. But here there are many exceptions. 

For further remarks on conjunctive and adverbial particles, 
see §125. 



294 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. § 179 



785.— ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense ; 
as, 6 av&QMnoii iartv &vtjt6q, man is mortal. 

All sentences are either simple or compound, 

A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; as, 6 plot; toil 
(iqayvq, life is short. 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con 
nected together ; as, &(6q iaxw oq ndvxa xvfiiora. 

786. — SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts — the subject 
and the predicate. 

The subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 

The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun, but may be any thing, 
however expressed, about which we can speak or think. 

The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attribute affirmed 
of the subject, and the copula, by which the affirmation is made ; thus, 
in the sentence, 6 &toq tanv dyaOoq, the subject is Qtoq ; the predi- 
cate is larlv dyaQ-oc, of which dyaOoq is the attribute, and iarir the 
copula. In most cases, the attribute and copula are expressed by one 
word ; as, innoq Tfji/n, the horse runs. 357. 

The name of a person or thing addressed forms uo part of a sen- 
tence. 

The predicate may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a preposi- 
tion with its case, an adverb, a participle, au infinitive mood, or elanse 
of a sentence, as an attribute, connected with, and affirmed of, the sub- 
ject by a copulative verb (437) ; or, it may be a verb which includes in 
itself both attribute and copula, and is therefore called an attributiv* 
verb. 

787. — THE SUBJECT. 

The subject of a proposition is either grammatical or logical. 

I. The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken oi, unlim- 
ited by other words. 

The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together wilh 
all the words or phrase? by which it is limited or defined ; thus, in the 
sentence, 6 fd/.aq olroq tan d-oint^/.oiraToq, the grammatical subject is 
elvoq ; the logical, 6 fii/.aq oiroq. Again: 

IL The subject of a proposition may be either simple or compound. 

A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either unlimited, 
as the grammatical, or limited, as the logical subject. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to 
which belongs but one predicate ; as, Xua^dxifi xai 2.'6/.iov ooqoi t t axv. 



§ 179. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 295 

788. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

A grammatical subject maybe modified, limited, or described in va- 
rious ways ; viz., 1. By a noun in apposition. 2. By a noun in the 
ve or dative. 8. By an adjunct, i. e. a preposition and its ease. 
4. By an adjective word, i. e. an article, adjective, adjective pronoun, 
or participle 5 By a relative and its clause. 

Each grammatical subject may have several modifications; and if 
't has none, the grammatical and logical subject are the same. 

789. — MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS. 

Modifying, or limiting words, may themselves be modified. 

1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all the wa} T s 

in which a noun, as a grammatical subject, is modified. 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified — 1. By an 
adjunct. 2. By a noun. 8. By an infinitive mood or clause of 
a sentence. 4. By an adverb. 

3. An adverb may be modified — 1. By another adverb. 2. By a 
substantive in an oblique ease. 

790. — THE PREDICATE. 

I. The prrdic<t/r, like the subject, is either grammatical or logical. 
The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula, not 

luoditied by other Wold-. 

The redicate is the grammatical, with all the words or 

phrase- thai modify it ; thus, tj uifh; fuxna ftavia tariv. the gramma- 
tical predicate is ficiria early; the logical, ftutqa ftaria iariv. 

When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms, the logi- 
cal and grammatical are the same. 

II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple or compound. 

A rimpU predicate affirms but one thing of its subject; as, 6 /Stoq 
(jQa/iq iartv ; inijivtov ol avt^ov. 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates 
affirmed of one subject ; as, KdSfioi; anixtavt rbv dfjdxovra, xal tanti,- 
Qi roit; odovraq avrov. 

791. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 

The grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in different 
ways. 

I. When the attribute in the predicate is a noun, it is modified — 1. 
By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute. 2. By an 
adjective or participle limiting the attribute. 

II. When the grammatical predicate is an attributive verb, it is mod- 
ified — 1. By a noun or pronoun as its object. 2. By an adverb. 3 
By an adjunct, 4. By an infinitive. 5. By a dependent clause. 



296 EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. §179. 

792 — Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and other words modifying the 
predicate, may themselves be modified, as similar words are when 
modifying the subject. 

Infinitives and participles modifying the predicate, may themselves 
be modified in all respects, as the attributive verb is modified. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

793. — A compound sentence consists of two or more simple senten- 
ces or propositions connected together. The propositions which make 
up a compound sentence, are called members, or clauses. 

794. — The propositions or clauses of a compound sentence, are ei- 
ther independent or dependent; in other words, coordinate, or subor- 
dinate. 

An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itself. 

A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only in con- 
nection with another clause. 

The clause on which another depends, is called the leading clause ; 
its subject is the leading subject; and its predicate, the leading predi- 
cate. 

795. — Clauses of the same kind, whether independent or dependent, 
are connected by such conjunctions as xal, ri, r ly r t xoi,, <fcc. 

796 — Dependent clauses having finite verbs, are connected with 
their leading clauses in three different ways ; as, 1. By a relative. 2. 
By a conjunction. 3. By an adverb. 

797. — A subordinate clause, consisting of an infinitive with its sub 
ject, is joined to a leading clause without a connecting word. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

/98. — A compound sentence is sometimes converted into a simple 
one, by rejecting the connective, and changing the verb of the depend- 
ent clause into a participle. A simple sentence thus formed is called 
an abridged proposition ; as, dt,t/.&6rv de 6)oay.t t v, r t r.iv tiq 6hy/$oe?, hav- 
ing gone through Thrace, he came to Thebes = inudav de diyk&i SffUNyr, 
jyxfv ilq OrjPaq. 



799.— EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 

1. — yofiog zov Kvqiov Igt)v do'/}i zfjg aocpiag, the fear of the 
Lord is tlie beginning of wisdom. 

This is a simple sentence, of which — 

The logical subject is 6 pojSfeq rov Kvqiov. 

The logical predicate is io~riv ao/rj r^q aoqiaq. 

The grammatical subject is qofioq, shown to be definite by the article 

6, and restricted by toT' Kioiov. 
The grammatical predicate is iariv aQ/Tj, of which tarty is the copula 

and oQ'/q the attribute, restricted by t^,- aoqiaq. 



§ 179. SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 297 

2. — 'O'HQCtxXtje rb Qonalov, o iyooei, avrbg faepsv In NtfJt'ag 
Hercules himself cut, from the forest of Nemea, the club which 
he was accustomed to carry. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one leading, and one depend 

ent clause connected by the relative o. 
11i« j leading clause, o 'HqohImq to ^ona/.ov ctlrbq Ixtfiiv in Nf/xiaq, is a 

simple sentence, of which — 
The logical subject is 6 'HqctxXfjq avxoq. 
The logical predicate is ftrifuv Is Nt/tinq to ^onalov. 
The grammatical subject is 'Hoa/j.7;q, shown to be definite by the arti- 

ele 6, and rendered emphatic by the definite pronoun avroq. 
The grammatical predicate is irtutv, modified by its object to ^onalov, 

and by the adjunct ex Ntftiaq. 
Th.- dependeol clause is o (avroq) iq<6^tt, of which — 
The logieal subject is ai'roq understood, a substitute for 'Hyaxlrjq. 
The logical predicate is o sVooc*. 
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
The grammatical predicate is frcjtev, modified by its object o, standing 

instead of o6tiu).ov, and, being a relative, it is the object of the 

verb, and also connects its clause with the leading clause. 



800.— SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

These two sentences, thus analyzed, may be parsed syntactically in 
the following manner : 

First Example. — (J qtoftog row Kvni'ov tor)v clqj)i ii\s o~o- 
qtug. 

'(), the, the definite article, in the nominative singular, masculine, agree- 
ing with qofioq, and showing it to be definite. Rule, "The 
article agrees," <fce. 400, declined thus, 6, r\, to, &e. 

ipofioq, fear, is a noun, masculine, second declension, qofioq, -ov. It is 
found in the nominative singular, the subject of lariv. "The 
subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative," 421. 

to? 1 , of ike, the definite article, genitive singular, masculine, agreeing 
with Kvqiov, and showing it to be definite. Rule, as before, 
400. 

Kvoiov, Lord, is a noun, masculine, second declension, Kvqtoq Kvqlov. 
It is in the genitive singular, governed by 6 q>6fioq, which it 
limits. Rule V. (449), "One substantive governs another," <fec. 

iaxlv, is, is a verb intransitive irregular, tipti, taofiat, rjv, Root L It is 
found in the present indicative, third person singular, and 
agrees with its subject q>6fioq. Rule IV. (420), "A verb 
agrees," <fec. 

ctQ/rj, the beginning, is a noun, feminine, first declension, ao/rj, -r\q, <&c 
It is found in the nominative singular, the predicate after 
iffriv its copula, and is therefore without the article, 403-4. 
Rule VL (436), "Any verb," <fcc. 



298 SYNTACTICAL PARSING. § 179. 

rtjq (not translated), the definite article, in the genitive singular, femi- 
nine, agreeing with aon'taq, an abstract noun, 403-3. Kule, 
"The article agrees," Ac. 400. 

aoylaq, of ivisdom, a noun feminine, first declension, aoqila, -aq. It is 
found in the genitive singular, governed by ay/*;, which it 
limits. Rule V. (449), " One substantive governs another," ie. 

Second Example. — '0 'JfQay.Xtjg to Qonalov, o tqogei, avrhg 
hefjiEV ex Atfu'ag, — construed thus : HquvII^ avrbg 
hefiev ex Nepeag rb nonaXov o icfOQti. 

c O (not translated), the definite article, in the nominative singular, mas- 
culine, agreeing with 'Hoa> dtjq, definite, 403-1. Rule "The 
article," &c. (400), declined 6, tj, to, Ac 139. 

'HoaxXijq, Hercules, contracted for 'Hoax/.t'^- (133), a proper noun, mas- 
culine, third declension, 'Hoax/.^?, -ioq, contr. -on,-. It is found 
in the nominative singular, the subject of trtutv. "The sub- 
ject of a finite verb is put in the nominative," 421. 

alxoq, himself a definite adjective pronoun, avroq, -/;, -6, 182. It is 
found in the nominative singular, masculine, and agrees with 
'Hoax/.rjq, rendering it emphatic Rule II., "An adjective 
agrees," <fce. 371 and 394. 

ertpiv, cut, is a verb transitive, first conjugation, liquid, riuvio, to cut, 
1 Root Tf,«, 2 ran, 3 to//. It is found in the 2 aortst indicative 
active, third person singular, and agrees with c Hoa/./.r,-. Rule 
IV., "A verb agrees," tfcc An irregular form for train. See 
the word, § lit. Give the tenses from the first root — from the 
second — from the third. 

ex, from, is a preposition atonic (J£ before a vowel), of, out of from, and 
governs Ntfiiaq. 

Ntpiaq, the forest of Nemea (without the article, being the first mention- 
ed), a proper noun, feminine, first declension, Ntfiia, -aq. It is 
found in the genitive singular, governed by ex. Rule XLVLLL 
ik *Avri, ct.To, ex or d," <tc. (052). 

to, the, the definite article, 6, //, to. It is found in the accusative sin- 
gular, neuter, agrees with Z>6na).ov, and shows it to be definite. 
Rule, "The article agrees/* Ac (400). 

£>6naXov, club, is a noun, neuter, third decleusion, qonakov, £o;ra/.or. It 
is found in the accusative singular, the object of, and governed 
by, ertfitp. Rule XXV., "A transitive verb," «i:c. (504). It is 
limited by the relative clause following it. 

6, which, the relative pronoun, o<,-, f\, o. It is found in the accusative 
singular, neuter, agreeing with its antecedent QOTra/.ov. Rule 
III., "The relative agrees," <fce. 404. It is governed in the ac- 
cusative by i^oott. Rule XXV., "A transitive verb," d'C 564; 
it connects its clause with §o7ia/.ov, and limits it. 

eqpooc*; teas accustomed to carry (19S, Obs. 2), is a verb, transitive, first 
conjugation, pure, <poqi(t>, to carry, kindred to qioio, to bear. 
Root <poQt (216). It is found in the imperfect indicative active, 
third person singular, contracted for iqoo**, and :igrees with 
its nominative avroq understood, referring to 'H(jaxX7;q. RuU 
IV., "A verb agree*," Ac (420). 



§ ISO, 181. prosody. 299 



PART IV 



PROSODY. 

801. — Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of the 
quantity of syllables and the construction of verses ; in other 
s, of Quantity and Metre. In the ancient grammarians, 
ftQoaqidia applies to accents. 



§180. QUANTITY. 

v 02. — Quantity means the relative length of time taken up in 
pronouncing a syllable. 

1. In respect of quantity, every syllable is either long or short. 
When a syllable is BOmetimee long, and sometimes short, it is 
s.ti.l '/">h, or doubtful. 

The quantity of syllables is determined by certain estab- 
lished rules ; or, when no rule applies, by the authority of the 
m >ets. 

3. In Greek, the quantity of certain vowels is determined as 
follows : 

1. The rowels e, a, are naturally short; as, Xiyb^iv. 

2. " r p 09j are naturally long; as, yJijico. 

3. " a, i, v, are doubtful ; as, ufiwa. 

4. Diphthongs and contracted syllables are long; as, exec, 
og/tv, contracted 6<pig* 



§181. I. POSITION. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

803. — Rule I. A short or doubtful vowel, before two conso- 
nants or a double letter, is almost always long ; as, 

noXXag t — nooiuipei', — cots Zevq. 

* In the Prosody the accents are omitted, a* they often interfere 
with the mark for the quantity. 



300 pkosody. , §182. 

This rule holds good in Epic poetry, except in proper names, and in 
words which could not be used in any other situation in the verse. In 
dramatic writers, observe the following exceptions : 

Exc. A short or doubtful vowel before a mute and a liquid, 
is common ; as, nutgoxXog, or TIurQdxXog. 

Obs. 1. A short vowel before a mute and a liquid is generally short. 
But before a middle mute (/?, y, d), followed by ^ in tragedy, it is mostly 
long; and followed by X, (i, v, almost always long, both in tragedy and 
comedy. 

Obs. 2. A short vowel before two liquids is alwavs long, and some- 
times before a single liquid, which in this case should be pronounced as 
if double ; thus, ilafit, pronounced e/./a/fr. 

Note 1. A short vowel in the end of a word, before q in the begin- 
ning of the word following, is long in the dramatic poets; as, i/*I ^tnov. 

Note. 2. We sometimes find a short syllable before two consonants 
(both mutes), but this is rare and should* not be imitated. 



§182. II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 

804. — Rule II. A vowel before another vowel is short, unless 
lengthened by poetic license ; as, TToXvui'xog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. a is long in the penult of nouns in cLmv, aovoc; as, Ma/dotv, Ma/ao- 

voq. And sometimes when the genitive ends in o)voq; as, 
JlofffiSdo)V, Iloaiirdcuoroq. 
in feminine proper names in eti'c; thus, 9a3». 

2. * is long in the penult of nouns in low, tovo<,-, and sometimes u»roq ; 

as, Jloio)v, Jloiovoq or Jloliovoq; except yiwv. 

in the penult of verbs in tw ; as, riot : but the Attic 

tragic writers have -Ua. 

3. i is common in the penult of nouns in j-a and t,r\ ; as, xoc/.ta and xa/.ia. 

4. v is common in the penult of verbs in voj ; as, ia/vo) or tvjpm. 

805. — Rule III. Long vowels and diphthongs are mostly 
short at the end of words, when the next word begins with a 
vowel ; as, 

Jfjoa eAcov o de | xlv xE%o\).cda£TaZ | bv xlv ix UfiaL 

Obs. 1. A vowel in the end of a word, before a word beginning with 
a vowel, does not suffer elision, as in Latin, unless an apostrophe is 
substituted (35). 

Obs. 2. Two vowels, forming two syllables, frequently in poetry 
coalesce into one; as, /ovaio), IL a. 15, where ioj form a short syllable. 
This frequentlv takes place though the vowels be in different "words ; 
as, J[qvx aklq, ll i 349. 828-2. 



§ 183, 184. prosody. 301 



§183. III. THE DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN FIEST AND 
MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

806. — Rule IV. A doubtful vowel before a simple consonant 
is short ; as, xuxog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. a is long in nouns in a/xwv, avo>(>, ctqoq; as, mdofidfiiav, dydvo)Q, 

ftvo&Qoq. 

■ in numerals in oatoq ; as, diaxoaioq. 

in derivatives from verbs in aoj pure, and qaw ; thus, 

avidroq from dvida) ; Idaiuoq from idofiai, ; xctxaquroq from 
xaray do /<ow; &idtr t q and Qia^a from #*cco/<eu; nfqdaifioq 
from my da) ; n^da^q from {ntnqdaxo) for) 7r^»aa). 

2. » is long in the penult of nouns in tviy, utj, t,rrjq, vru; ; thus, divrj, 
1 AtpqoSiTT], notirrjq, noliru; 



in the penult of verbs in */9oj, tvw ; thus, TQifio), nlvo) ; 
so also xiveo), dlvio), <fec. 
8. i; is long in verbals in vfia, vftoq, i>rtiQ, ivoq, vxwq ; as, Xvfia, 
Xi'Moq, $frr«f. 

in pronoun* ; as, 'tyutq, 

in the penult of verbs in ww, vqo), v%o) } v/ai> ; as, nlvvo), 

xvqoi, ^(jv/o), (fTfti, inyvvfit. 
in adverbs in vdov ; as, {JotqiSov. 



§184. IV. THE DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN FINAL SYL- 
LABLES. 
8(*f . — Rule V. a, t, v t in the end of a word, are short ; as, 
Upva*, fii).i, yXvxv. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1 A in the end of a word is long, viz: 

— In nouns in t a, da, &a ; as, &fd, Ar\8d, Maq&d ; exc. d/.av&d. 

— In the dual number; as, n^oqirjrd, fiovad. 

— In polysyllables in ouct; as, Sfkyvctid. 

• in tut, derived from verbs in *i'w ; as, dovhid, 

fiaaund, from doihvo), fiaaiXtvot. But j-JaaUnd, a queen, 
has the final a short 

— In *a ; as, xa/Ua, except verbals in r^ua ; as, ya).TQt,d ; and 

did, /tfrd, nor via. 

— In the vocative of nouns in aq of the 1st declension ; as, Aivnd 

from Alvtiaq. 

— In feminines from adjectives in oq; as, iuoid, f/ftere(>a. 

— In nouns in ^a not preceded by a diphthong ; as, fjptqd, y,i}Qd. 

Except dyxvqd, ytqvqa, KfQxvqd y bXv^d, axokontvSqd, oq>vqd t 
ravayQd, and compounds of fifxqo) ; as, y*w/*fT£d. 

— In poetic vocatives ; as, Ilakkm, for TlakXaq. 

14 



302 prosody. § 184. 

2. i final is long in the names of letters ; a?, nl. 

3. v final is long in the names of letters ; as, (i v, vv. 

in verbs in v/il; as iyv. 

in fxfratv and yqv. 

808. — Rule VI. A doubtful vowel in the final syllable, fol- 
lowed by a simple consonant, is short ; as, field?, Xufinag. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. av is long in masculines; as, TVrdv; and ntiv, when not in com- 
position. 

in accusatives when their nominatives are long; as, 

Aivti>av from Alvuaq. 

in adverbs ; as, ayav. 



2. ao in xd(> and v>ct£ is long ; in yog it is either long or short. 

3. a<; is long in nouns of the first declension ; as, Aivudq, povaajq. 
in words having avxoq in the genitive ; as, xt-ydq, 

tvxpavroq. 
also in rjftdq, Ifiaq, xydq. 

4. w is long in nouns in w which have ivoq in the genitive ; as, 

qrjy/uiv, £>rjypi>voq. 
in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 



tive ; as, axrlv, or axrtq. 
also in Tjftiv, v/ulv. 



6. k; is long in monosyllables ; as, Xlq ; but the indefinite tk is 
common. 
in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, axriq, axTtv. 

in feminine dissyllables in ic, idoq, or t&oq ; as, xvr*piiq, 

xvtj^uSoq; ogviq, oftvi&oq; except doTtiq, i(ju, -/afj't*;, and a 
few others. 

in polysyllables preceded by two short syllables ; as, 

nkoxd^Zq. 
6. vv is long in nouns which have vvoq in the genitive; as, fioaai-v, 
f/offffvvoq. 
in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, yo()xi>q f or voqxvv. 

in accusatives from i>q in the nominative ; as, oqoTv 



from opQi'q. 

in the ultimate of verbs in up*; as, iqir from qiui. 

vvv, now; but in rf-v, enclitic, it is short. 



7. vq in the end of a word is always long ; as, ^agrio 

8. vq is long in monosyllables : as, pvq. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, yogxvq, go^xif. 

in nominatives which have i-vroq or oq pure in the gen- 
itive; as, dftxvvq, dftxvwtoq; 6?<iiq, oqovoq. 

in xo)fjvq, xo)uv&oq; and 

in the last syllable of verb* in ijm ; as, iffi-q. 



§ 185, 186. prosody. 303 



§185. V. DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE INCREMENT 

OF NOUNS. 

809. — Rule VII. The quantity of the nominative remains in 
he oblique cases ; thus, Tuuv, Tizavog ; xvynig, xvtjjudog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. f o in the nominative shortens the crement ; as, ftaqrvf), /ta^ri^o?. 

2. A vowel, long by position, in the nominative, shorteife the cre- 
ment in the obli., us, ai/.ul, avXaxoq. But nouna in a£ after 
a vowel have the ereinent long ; as, vtaz, vidxot;. 

Likewise Qioyai, ltpa$, xvo>da$, xo(jda$, laft()a$, otoc£, £a£, <r«(>?>a£, 
qpfva;, with many WQTQB in ty, t^oq, and t$, iyo<; or ixoq; to which add 
yqwp, yey, and generally Btfi(JiS, dotdti, o^tiS, aavd'v$. 

1 o« pure in the genitive, from a long syllable in the nominative, 
varies the ereinent ; as, fyu$, fyvoq, or d'qvoq. 

4. The dative plural, alter a syncope, has the penult short; as, 



§ 18G. VI. DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE INFLECTION 
OF VERBS. 

The doubtful vowels, a, t, v, are short in verbs, unless it be other- 
pecified in the Rules. 

810. — Rule VULL a and v before gu in participles, and al- 
v,.-i\s before ci in verbt, are long; as, ?v\puGu t detxvvaa, rezv- 
quaij dtixvvai (§ 6, 18). 

FUTURE. 

81 1. — Rule IX. The future in aaco y igco, vgcq, from am after 
a vowel, or from quco, ico, t&co, vco, lengthen the penult ; as, 

iucoy euGco ; dyaw, douGco ; pQi&co, ^qigod ; ig%vco, Igxvggj. 

But the future in ugco, ig<o, vgcOj from afco, i£co f v£co, shorter 
the penult ; as, 

«^7i(kw, (tQmiGa) ; 07tXi£(q, bnXiGco ; x?.v£o), xIvggj. 

812. — Rule X. Liquid verbs shorten the penult in the future ; 
as, xqIvoj, xquco. 

813. — Rule XL The second future, in the passive voice, 
shortens the root-syllable ; as, zf/wa), rti[irJGO(icu ; qpawa), q>an]- 
6oj.ua. 



304 prosody. § 187. 

THE OTHER TENSES. 

814. — Rule XII. The doubtful vowels have the same quan- 
tity in the tenses as in their roots ; thus, 

1 Root xqZv, — xqivo), ixqlvov, xqivo/AOU, tvi.qivofi.rjv. 

2 Root, xqiv, — xfx^txa, ixixqlxtw, xqi&riaofiav, (xqI&tjv, xqivrjOOficu, 

ixqtvrjv, xixqlfiav, ixfxqljurjv. 
2 Root. xvn, — ixvnov, irv7iOfir t v, rvnyaoficu, lxv7ir\v. 
8 Root. XV71, XiXVTICty ixixvntiv. 

Exc. 1. Liquid verbs in the future active and middle, as in Rule X. 

Exc. % The initial t and v, in the augmented tenses and moods, are 
long ; as, 'txo/iou, r Zxo fttjv. 

The quantity of a doubtful vowel in the root is ascertained as fol- 
lows: 

815. — I. Verbs in aco pure, or in gaco, im, t&co, and vco, have 
the final vowel of the first root long, unless followed by a vowel ; 
if followed by a vowel, it comes under Rule II. All others are 
usually short. 

816. — II. The final syllable of the second root is always shorty 
unless made long by position. 

817. — III. The first root of liquid verbs is shortened in the 
future, 244-1. 

SPECIAL RULES FOR VERBS IN flU 

818. — Rule XIII. The proper reduplication is short, unless 
made long by position ; as, ti&^lu. The improper reduplication 
is common ; as, 'iijfu or iqfu. 

819. — Rule XIV. a, not before aa or ci, is every where 
short ; as, lard^iev, lazaze. 

820. — Rule XV. v is long in polysyllables, only in the sin- 
gular of the indicative active ; every where else it is short ; as, 
deixvvfM, dsi'Avi'Gt, dtr/.ivrco, dtixrvuat, &c. 

821 — In dissyllables, it is every where long; as, <Jfy«, Svxov, Sv- 
fiat, &C, 



§187. Vn. DERIVATION AXD COMPOSITION. 

822. — Rule XVI. Derivatives follow the quantity of their 
primitives ; and compounds, that of the simple words of which 
they are composed ; as, 

xljutj — axljuoc, ouoxlf(Oq, Tluavioq, <tc 

kaoq — Adoutdov, Mtvt/.doq, <tc. 

Xvo), kvo~(o — Avaavdqoq, XvGtxaxoq, <tc. 

otai, otaxoq — oldxocrxqovoq, oiaxovopoq, Ac 

nvq — 7ivqavaxr t q, nvqqiOQoq, tfce. 

qiq or qiv — Qivt]i.axiw } nok/.vqivoq, <tc 



§ 188, 189. prosody. 805 

823. — Rule XVII. a privative before two short syllables, is 
frequently long ; as, dxdfidjog. 

824 — Also avv in composition is sometimes long ; as, avvvrj/u. 



§188. VIE. DIALECTS. 

ATTIC. 

825. — Rule XVIII. The Attics lengthen a in the accusative 
of nouns in evg , as, ftaod^vg, ace. {totalled, contrary to Rule V. 

Also, * instead of a, f, o ; as, xavxi for rcti'Tot ; 6Sl for ofo. 
The Paragogic * in pronouns (the dative plural excepted), and in 
adverbs, is long ; as, ovxoai, vivi, Dat pL xovxotai. 

826.— IONIC. 

1. The Comparative in tov shortens the neuter; the Attics lengthen 
it; us, xa/./iov, I. uaXAiov, A 

'J. In adjectives of time, i is long; as, onomZvoq. 

3. In verb-, the Ionic a, <r* not following it, is short; as, lotrat for 

9JVTCU,. 

827. DORIC ANb ;EOLIC. 

1. The Doric a is long; the ^Eolic is short; as, Alvud, Doric for 
AlvtM ; Innoxd, ^Eolic for i7T7ioxr t q, Ac 



828.— §189. IX. TOETIC LICENSE. 

1. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in Iambic, Trochaic 
Anapaestic, and Greater Ionic. 

2. The XvCnfaq unites two syllables into one ; as, 

-J I J I 

Xfjvotot ava (Txtjtztqo) xcu zfoaaixo navxaq A/cuovq, 

H /.a&ix i\ ovx tvorjffiv aaaaxo Of fitya {fiipta, 

I- I I I I 

H fti Htfocu a/idur\ ntQctav fttya Xcux/xa S-akaaatjq. 

8. The Arsis makes a short syllable in the end of a word long; as, 
Aldowq xt fiOL iaai, puu? ixvQi~ dfwoq xt, 

irmovq o Avxoutoovxa (rooyq QtvyvvfifV avo)yi. 

N&,e 1. The Arsis means the elevation of the voice, which, in Hexa- 
meter verse, is always on the first syllable of a foot. 



306 prosody. § 190. 

Note 2. A short syllable is sometimes, and but very rarely, length- 
ened at the end of a foot ; thus, 

, , I I I I, I 

Tr\ 6 B7it, fitv roqyo) filoffvQv)7iiq iarftpavono. 

829 — Besides these deviations from the usual rules of quantity, 
the Poets sometimes varied the quantities of syllables, as follows . 

I. They lengthened a syllable, 1. By doubling or inserting a conso- 
nant ; as, tddeiae for tdturt ; dnro/Uq for &7io/.i,q. 2. By changing a 
vowel into a diphthong ; as, Stvofiav for Sto/xcu. 3. By Metathesis ; as, 
inga&ov for inag&ov. 

II. They shortened a syllable, By rejecting one vowel of a diph- 
thong ; as, f/ov for illov. 

ILL They increased the number of syllables, 1. By resolving a diph- 
thong; as, ai/fw for oh'tm. 2. By inserting or adding a letter or sylla- 
ble ; as, daaytroq for aa/ttoq ; tjtXioq for r t hoq ; /ft^jpj. for fiiy. 

IV. They lessened the number of syllables, 1. By aphseresis ; as, vto&t 
for ivtg&f. 2. By syncope ; as, iygiro for iyuqero. 3. By apocope 
and apostrophe; as, do) for dotfia; fivot for fivqia. 

Other varieties will be learned by practice. Many conjectures have 
been made with regard to the ancient orthography, and the principles 
of versification as depending upon it But the best of them deserve 
the credit of ingenuity alone; for, as they rest on no unquestionable 
authority, they are of little or no use. 



§190. FEET. 

830 — A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables 
strictly regulated by time ; and is either simple or compound. Of the 
simple feet, four are of two, and eight are of three syllables. There 
are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. These varieties are 
as follows : 

831. — Simple feet of two Syllables. 



Pyrrichius >— * 


*— 


&i0q. 


Spondeus — 


— 


Tf'.TT«i. 


Iambus *-s 


— 


/.i-yoh 


Troehaeus — 


^ 


<xw/»a. 


832.— Simple feet of 


three 


Syllables. 


Tribrachys ■—' >-^ 


v_^ 


7TO/?«d«. 


Molossus — — 


— 


tV/fO/.fj. 


Dactylus — >_• 


--' 


jiitiQTVOdq. 


Anapastus ^ s_. 


— 


fiao~i/.tCq. 


Bachius ^ — 


— 


l7Tf;TF:q. 


Antibachius — — 


^ 


dtlxvi ui. 


Amphibrachys ^-> — 


^ 


ri&ijui. 


Amphimacer — v_^ 


— 


ifutvvrm. 



§ 191, 192. prosody. 307 

833. — Compound feet of four Syllables. 

Choriambus — >— * -— ' — troxpQ dacvij a trochee and an iambus. 

Antigpastus w w andfjrrjfia. an iambus and a trochee* 

Ionic a majore >■— ^-> y.d<T/uFjxdod a spondee and a pyrrieh. 

Ionic a minore ^ •— nfo6vixxFi<; a pyrrieh and a spondee. 

First Paeon — <-^ w n_- daxgdhoyot; a trochee and a pyrrieh. 

Second ^ — w w dv«$io<; an iambus and a pyrrieh. 

Third w w — w dvadq/id a pyrrieh and a trochee. 

Fourth w ^ w — &tdyii>f]<; a pyrrieh and an iambus. 

• Kpitrite w dfidyxoiXFj an iambus and a spondee. 

<>nd — ^ dr()^6</di'TA;q a trochee and a spondee. 

Third w — tvQva&tv^q a spondee and an iambus. 

Fourth ^ hofiF^xijod a spondee and a trochee. 

Proceleusmaticus ^ ^ ^ •— ' 7i6/.t/ui6<; two pyrrichs. 

I)i<poiideu8 «T' vtfof' A* tiffw two spondees. 

Di iambus — ' — w — %niaxdxr^ two iambi. 

Ditrochffius — ^ — -^ dvoxvxtjpd, two trochees. 



§191. OF METRE. 

i a its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables 
and feel in iding to certain rules; and in this sense applies, 

not only to an entire verse, but to a part of a verse, or to any number 
(re, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet 
called a syzygy), and sometimes one foot only. 
835 — Xot<. The distinction between rhythm and metre is this: — 
the former refera to the time only, in regard to which, two short sylla- 
bles are equivalent to one long; the latter refers both to the time and 
the order of the syllables. The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the 
same ; the metre different. The term rhythm, however, is also under- 
n a more eomprehensive senee, ana is applied to the harmonious 
construction and enunciation of feet and words in connection; thus, a 
line has rhythm when it contains amj number of metres of equal time, 
without, regard to their order. Metre requires a certain number of 
metres, and these arranged in a certain order. Thus, in this line, 
v Aoytxt, SuuhttfUf tw niv&toq aq/txt MoZaou. 

there is both rhythm, as it contains six metres of equal value in respect 
of time ; and metre, as these metres are arranged according to the canon 
for Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl in the 5th, and a 
spondee in the 6th place. Change the order thus, 

"siq/txi, MoiGat, £ixffoxai, xoi 7iiv&to<; ao/fn. 

and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but the metre is de- 
stroyed ; it is no longer a Hexameter heroic line. 



§192. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 
836 — 1. Metre, in the general sense, is divided into nine species: 

1. Iambic. 4. Dactylic. 7. Ionic a majore. 

2. Trochaic. 5. Choriambic. 8. Ionic a minore. 
8. Anapaestic. 6. Antispastic 9. Paeonic or Cretio. 



308 prosody. § 192. 

These namo? are derived from the feet which prevail in them. 
Each species was originally composed of those feet only, from which it 
is named ; but others, equal in time, were afterwards admitted under 
certain restrictions. 

It often happens that two species, totally dissimilar, are united in the 
same verse, which is then termed Asynartetes. When the irregularity 
is great, and it cannot be reduced to any regular form, it is called Poly- 
schematistie or anomalous. 

837. — Note. The invention or frequent use of any species of metre 
by a particular poet, or its being used in some particular civil or reli- 
gious ceremony, or appropriated to some particular subject or sentiment, 
has been the occasion of certain kinds of verse receiving other names 
than those specified above. Thus, we have the Asclepiadean, Glyco 
nian, Alcaic, Sapphic, and others ; named from the poets, Asclepiades, 
Glycon, Alcceus, Sappho, Phal&cus, Sotades, Archilochus, Alcman, 
Pherecrates, Anacreon, Aristophanes, <fcc So also the Prosodiacus 
(from nqoaoSoq), so called from being used in the approach to the altars 
on solemn festivals ; and the Paroemiacus, a kind of verse much used in 
the writing of proverbs {naqotfilai). 

838 — In the iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, a metre con- 
sists of two feet ; in the others, of one only. 

839. — 2. A verse or metre is farther characterized by the number 
of metres (in the specific meaning of the term) which it contains, as 
follows : 

A verse containing one Metre is called Monometer. 
two Metres Dimeter. 

three Metres Trimeter 

four Metres Tetrameter. 

five Metres Pentameter. 

six Metres Hexameter. 

seven Metres Heptameter. 

840 — 3. A verse may be complete, having precisely the number 
of metres which the canon requires ; or it may be deficient in the last 
metre ; or it may be redundant. To express this, a verse is further 
characterized as follows : viz. 

1. Aoatalectic, when complete. 

„ ( Catalectic, if wanting one syllable. 

\ Brachycatalectic, if wanting two syllables oi one whole foot. 
3. Hypercatalectic, when there is one or two syllables at the end, 
more than the verse requires ; thus, 

yr\ Xmv dqaxovraq otq. ^Esch. Lept, Theb. 

is denominated "trochaic dimeter catalectic ;" the first term referring 
to the species, the second to the number of metres, and the third to the 
apothesis or ending. 

841. — Note. The two last terms, viz. that designating the number 
of metres, and that which refers to the ending, are sometimes reduced 
to one ; thus, when a verse of a given species consists of two feet and 
a half, it is called Penthemimer ; of three and a half, Hephthemimer (five 
half feet, seven half feet) ; and when it consists of one metre and a 
half, it is called Hemiholius. 



§ 193, 194, 195. prosody. 309 

842 — The respective situation of each foot in a verse is called ita 
place (scdes). 

The rules or canons of the different kinds of metre are briefly as 
follows. 



§ 193. I. IAMBIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, 1. 

843 — A pure iambic verse consists only of iambuses. 

A mixed iambic verse admits in the first, third, and fifth place, an 
iambus or a spondee. 

In the second, fourth, and sixth, an iambus only. 

Variation 1. The iambus in the odd places may be resolved into a 
tribrach ; the spondee, into a dactyl or an anapaest. 

Variation 2. The iambus in the even places (except the last), may 
be resolved into a tribrach. An anapaest is substituted for it in the 
case of a proper name only. 

Observe, however, 1st that a dactyl should be avoided in the fifth 
place ; and, 2d. that resolved feet should not concur. 

Of this verse there are all varieties of length, monometers, dimeters, 
trimeters (called also senarian, each line having six feet), and tetra- 
meters. 



§ 194. II. TROCHAIC METRE. Scheme, §204, H. 

844. — A pure trochaic verse consists of trochees only. 

A mixed trochaic verse admits in the odd places, a trochee only; in 
the even places, a trochee or a spondee. 

The trochee may, in any place, be resolved into a tribrach, and the 
spondee into a dactyl or anajurst. 

A dactyl, in the odd places, occurs only in the case of a proper name. 

Trochaic verses are mostly catalectic. A system of them generally 
consists of catalectic tetrameters ; sometimes of dimeters, catalectic and 
acatalectic intermixed. 

In tetrameters, the second metre should always end a word. 



§195. m. ANAPAESTIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, HI. 

845. — An anapaestic verse, without any restriction of places, admits 
either an anapast, spondee, or dactyl. 

Exc. 1. The dimeter catalectic, called paraemiacus, requires an ana- 
paest in the last place but one ; and is incorrect when a spondee is found 
there. 

Exc. 2. In some instances the proper foot is resolved into the proce- 
leusmatic. 

Anapaestic verses are sometimes intermixed with other species, but 
are oftener in a detached system by themselves. 

846. — A system is chiefly composed of dimeters under the following 
circumstances : 

1. When each foot, or at least each metre (syzygy), ends a word. 
14* 



310 pkosody. § 196, 197, 

2. When the last verse but one of the system is monometer aeata- 
lectio, and the last, dimeter catalectic, with an anapaest in the second 
metre. 

In a system, this peculiar property is to be observed, that the last 
syllable of each verse is not common (as in other species), but has its 
quantity subject to the same restrictions as if the foot to which it be- 
longs occurred in any other place of the verse. 

847 — A series, therefore, of anapaestic verses, consisting of one or 
more sentences, is to be constructed as if each sentence was only a single 
verse. 

848. — Note. The monometer acatalectic is called an anapaestic base. 
This is sometimes dispensed with in a system ; in the parcemiacus, rarely 

849. — To this metre belong the Aristophanic, being catalectic tetra- 
meters ; and the proceleusmatic, consisting of feet isochronal to an ana- 
paest, and, for the most part, ending with it. 



§ 196. IV. DACTYLIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, IV. 

850 — A dactylic verse is composed solely of dactyls and spondees. 
In this species one foot constitutes a metre. 

The common heroic is hexameter acatalectic, having a dactyl in the 
fifth place and a spondee in the sixth. 

Sometimes in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, a spondee 
takes the place of the dactyl in the fifth foot; from which circumstance 
such lines are called spondaic. 

85 1 — The elegiac pentameter consists of five feet The first and 
second may be either a dactyl or a spondee at pleasure ; the third must 
always be a spondee ; the fourth and fifth anapaests. 

852 — Though a heroic verse is confined to a smaller number of ad- 
missible feet than an iambic verse, several licenses are allowed which 
are not used in the latter. 

The most considerable of these are: 

1. The lengthening of a short final syllable in certain cases, viz. at 
the caesural pause, and where its emphasis is increased by its beginning 
a foot. 

2. The hiatus, or the concurrence of two vowels, in contiguous words. 
853. — That irregular sort of dactylics which Hephaestion calls 

JEolics, admits, in the first metre, any foot of two syllables ; the rest 
must be all dactyls, except where the verse is catalectic, and then the 
catalectic part must be part of a dactyl. 

854 — A second sort of dactylics, called by the same author Logaos- 
dics, requires a trochaic syzygy at the end, all the other feet being dactyls. 



§ 197. V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, V. 

855 — The construction of an ordinary choriambic verse is very 
simple. Each metre, except the last, is a choriambus, and the last may 
be an iambic syzygy, entire or catalectic. 

856. — The iambic syzygy (two iambk feet) is sometimes found at 



§ 198, 199. prosody. 31 i 

the beginning, and, in long verses, in other places ; but this happene 
less frequently. 

857. — If any other foot of four syllables is joined witii a choriarabus, 
the verse is then more properly called epichoriambic. Of this there is 
a very great variety, and they sometimes end with an amphibrach, 
sometimes with a bachius. 



§198. VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, VI. 

858. — An antispastic verse, in its most usual and correct form, is 
constructed as follows: 

In the first place, beside the proper foot, is admitted any foot of four 
syllables ending like an autispastus in the last two syllables ; i. e. either 
w w-, <*, ^ ^ — —, or — ^ — ^. 

In the intermediate places, only an antispastus. 

In the last, an iambic syzygy, complete or catalectic, or an incom- 
plete antispastus. 

There is scarcely any limit to the varieties in this species. 

859 — The following are the must usual: 

1. In short verses, the proper foot frequently vanishes, and the verse 
consists of «me of the above-mentioned feat and an iambic s}'zygy. 

All the epitrites, except the second, are occasionally substituted 
in the several places in the verse, particularly the fourth epitrite in the 
second. 

'6. If an antispastus begins the verse, and three syllables remain, 
whatever those syllables are, the verse is antispastic; because thev 
nay be considered as a portion of some of the admissible feet, or of 
some of them resolved. 

4. In Long verses, an iambic svzygy sometimes occurs in the second 
place, and then the third place admits the same varieties as the first. 

An antispastus, with an additional syllable, is called Dochmiac. 

An antispastus, followed by an iambic syzygy, is called Glyconian. 

Two antispasti, with an iambic syzygy, is called Asclepiadean. 

Antispa-tie dimeter catalectic, is called Pherecratian. 



% 199. VII. IONIC METRE A MAJORE. Scheme, § 204, VII. 

860. — An Ionic verse admits a trochaic syzygy promiscuously with 
its proper foot. The verse never ends with the proper foot complete, 
but either with the trochaic syzygy or the proper foot incomplete. The 
varieties of this metre are numerous, among which observe the follow- 
ing : 

Var. 1. The second paeon is sometimes found in theirs* place. 

Var. 2. A molossus ( ) in an even intermediate place, with a 

trochaic syzygy following. 

Var. 3. The second pceon is occasionally joined to a second or third 
epitrite, so that the two feet together are equal in time to two Ionic 
feet. This is called an ytvcty./.aau; ; the defect in time of the preceding 
foot being, in this case, supplied by the redundant time of the subse- 
quent ; and the verse so disposed is called './ivaxAoyttyof. 



312 prosody. § 200, 201, 202. 

Var. 4. Resolutions of the long syllable into two short ones, are 
allowed in all possible varieties. 

861. — If the three remaining paeons, or the second paeon in any place 
but the first, without an 'AvdnXaGu; : or, 

If an iambic syzygy or third epitrite — a choriambus, or any of the 
discordant feet of four syllables, be found in the same verse with an 
Ionic foot, the verse is then termed Epi-ionic. 



§ 200. VIII. IONIC METRE A MINORE. Scheme, § 204, 

VIE. 

862 — An Ionic verse a minore is often entirely composed of its own 

E roper feet. It admits, however, an iambic syzygy promiscuously, and 
egins sometimes with the third pozon followed by one of the epitrites 
for an 'AvocxXafftq. 

863. — A molossus sometimes occurs in the beginning of the verse, 
and also in the odd places, with an iambic syzygy preceding. 

864 — In the intermediate places a second or third paeon is prefixed 
to a second epitrite ; and this construction is called 'Avdxlaoiq as before. 

Resolutions of the long syllables are allowed in this, as in the other 
Ionic metre. 

865. — An Epionic verse a minore is constructed by intermixing with 
the Ionic foot a double trochee, second epitrite, or paeon without an 'Avd- 
xXaaiq. 

PROSODIAC VERSE. 

866 — "When a choriambus precedes or follows an Ionic foot of either 
kind, the name Epionic is suppressed, and the verse called Prosodiacus. 
And, in general, 

This name is applied to a verse consisting of an alternate mixture 
of choriambic and Ionic feet, or of their respective representatives. 

N. B. The two species of Ionic are not to be intermixed in the same 
verse. 



§ 201. IX. P^EONIC METRE. Scheme, §204, IX. 

867. — A paeonic verse requires all the admissible feet to have the 
same rhythm with its proper foot ; i. e. to consist of five times, or be 
equal to five short syllables. 

The first and fourth paeons are mostly used, but not in the same verse. 

The construction of this verse is most perfect when each metre ends 
with the several words of the verse, as was before remarked of the ana- 
pmstic metre. 

To this head may be referred those verses which are called by some 
authors Bacchiac and Cretic verses. 



§202. THE CLESURAL PAUSE. 

868. — Besides the division of the verse into metres and feet* there 
is another division, into two parts only, owing to the natural intennia- 



§ 203, 204. prosody. 313 

sion of the voice in reading it, and relevant to the rhythmical effect. 
This is called the pause, which necessarily ends with a word ; and its 
distance from the beginning is generally, though not invariably, deter- 
mined by the length of the verse. 

869. — Heroic verses and trimeter iambics are esteemed most har- 
monious when the pause falls upon theirs* syllable of the third foot. 
This is the penthemimeral caesura. When it falls upon the first syllable 
of the fourth, it is called the hephthemimeral. In iambic and trochaic 
tetrameters, its place is at the end of the second metre. These rules are 
more observed by the Roman than by the Greek poets. In anapaestic 
verse, and paeonic, no place is assigned to the pause ; because, since the 
metres (if rightly constructed) end with a word, the effect of a pause 
will be produced at the end of each metre. The same may be observed 
of the Ionic a minor e. 



§ 203. COMPOUND METRES. 

870. — Besides the preceding nine species of metre, the compositions 
and modifications of these are very numerous. Of these, observe the 
following : 

1. A long syllable is sometimes inserted between the parts of a verse 
consisting of similar metres. 

2. In some species, the portions of an admissible foot of four sylla- 
bles are separated by the intermediate metres. 

8. It happens not unfrequently that two species, totally dissimilar, 
are united in the same verse ; which is then denominated Asynaktetes ; 

1. Dactylic Tetram. 4- Troch. Hemiholius. 

2. Iambic Penth. -j- Troeh. Hemiholius. 

8. Dactylic Dim. -f- Troch. Monom. or Logaaedic. 
4. Iambic syzygy -f" Troch. Syzygy, and vice versa. 
This last is called Periodicus. 

4. When a verse is so irregular as to contain in it some glaring vio- 
lation of the preceding rules, it is called Polyschematistiq or anomalous; 
thus, 

871. — To this title may be referred, 

1. A verse otherwise iambic, having a spondee in the second or 
fourth place. 

2. An iambus in a trochaic verse, <fec. <fec 

These rules are exemplified in the following tables. 



§ 204. METRICAL TABLES. 

872 — The following tables exhibit a scheme of the different feet 
allowed in each kind of metre, and the place which they occupy. In 
the tables the following abbreviations occur; viz., A. C for Acatalec- 
tic ; C. for Catalectic ; B. C. for Brachycatalectic ; H. C. for Hypercata- 
lectic; and P. N. for Proper Name. 840, Ic. Iambic, Trochaic, and 
Anapastic verse, each metre consists of two feet, and is followed by a 
double line. 



su 



PROSODY. 



§204: 



873.— I. IAMBIC METRE. §193. 
1. Monometer Base. 2. Dimeter Acatalectic. 



1. 


2. 




1. 


2 ' 


i a 


4. 


W 


<w ' — 


W — 


-~s 


i w_ 


w — 













, w w w 




— S~* V^ 






v— ' •v-' 




| — w W 


• 


W 






WW 




| W W 





3. Trimeter Acatalectic. 



^x — 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


>-<■ — 


w — 


w — 




_ w w 




— W ^^ 













W W _- 


WW — 





P.N 



874.— II. TROCHAIC METRE. §194. 

Explanation of the Scheme. 

In this verse, each metre is alike. If from the trimeter scheme 
exhibited below, the first and the second metre be taken away, the 
remainder will be a scheme of the Monometer, which is. always hyper- 
catalectic or acatalectic. If the first be taken away, the remainder 
will be a scheme of the dimeter ; and if a metre be prefixed, it will be a 
scheme of the tetrameter, which is always catalectic. 

Trimeter Acatalectic. 



1. 2. 


3. j ' 4 5. 6. 




— w | 


_W w 1 _ ww 


j — w 









J33_ 




— 






W W i w W li WW 


i 






w w | T-' {] w w 





875.— III. ANAPJSSTIC METRE. §195. 

Explanation of the Scheme. 

This scheme is dimeter. The removal of the first metre leaves it 
Monometer (which is called an anapaestic base) ; by prefixing one 
metre, it becomes trimeter ; and by prefixing two it becomes tetra- 
meter, which is always catalectic. A catalectic dimeter is also called 
Parantiae. 



§ 204. prosody. 315 

1. Dimeter Acatalectic. 2. Parcemaic or Dim. Cat. 



1. 


2. 


8. 


4. 1 




1. 


2. 


8. 


4. 




w w 


w w 


^ W 






,._ 











876.— IV. DACTYLIC METRE. §196. 

1. Dimeter. 2. Trimeter. 



1. 


2. 




w 


— m w 




1 


— 


-WW 


— 





AC. 
H.C. 
Adonic. 



1. 2. 


3. 


_ w w , _ w w 


zr~| 








— 


— 


W W | - 

! 1 



A C. 
H. C. 



3. Tetrameter. 



Ill 



JO/OHO. 



4. Pentameter. 



h 


2. 


8. 4. 


5. ! 










-WW j 

— 1 


1 ) ) 1 
1)1) 


-WW 








-- W 


_^w 


} — 


WW- 


! 

WW _. 



A C. 

^Eolic. 

Elegiac. 



6. Hexameter. 



1 


2. | 8. | 4. I 5. 


6. 


— WW 






_ww i -WW 


— 


— w w 






— w w — w w 


W 



























zV\> 



pure, 
impure. 
Heroic. 



316 



PROSODY. 



§204. 



Logacedics. 

called also Choeiambic Dimeter Catalectic 
Alcaic (the most common). 

Zw3 W |— w — w jLogaaedics only 



877.— V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. §197. 



M. I. 



n. 



Trimeter. 
III. 



Cat. 

pure acatalectic seldom occurs. 

impure do. in which also other 

feet are intermixed, as the 

Paeons and Epitrites. 



Monometer is the same as Dact. Dim. Dimeter removes the first 
Metre. Tetrameter prefixes a metre, and is always Catalectic 



878.— VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. §198. 

An Antittpastic Metre. 
Iambus. Trochee. 

— ^ In the varieties of this verse, any of the simple 
www feet under the Iambus may precede any of those 

under the Trochee. Dimeters, Trimeters, and 

w ^ _ Tetrameters, are formed as directed § 198, and 

are catalectic, acatalectic, and hypercatalectic. 

The Dochmiac dimeter and trimeter is formed 

w ~~ " by repeating the Dochmiac monometer. The 

~~ w Dochmiac also sometimes precedes, and some 

— w w times follows, the Antispastus. 



pure 



Metres. L 



II. 



~\ 



Any form of ) 
an Antispas- V 
tic metre. ) 



Antispastic Varieties. 

Cat is called Pherecratio 

•A C. is called Glyconic 

H. C. is called Sapphic 

A. C. is called Glyconic Polyschematistic. 



204 



PKOSODY. 



317 



879.— VIL IONIC METRE, a majore, §199. 
Trimeter. 
Metres I. IL IIL 
rww ww ^ ^ | ^ wj^ CaL 

purej — 

as above. 



as above and 



A.C. 



all the paeons. 
Doubter may be formed by joining L and III. 

VARIETIE8 OF THE IONIC A MAJORE. 

r3-Z|3Z^ w }---- Alcaic 
w — wwl— ww— , or — ww — -Jw — wwl Prosodiacus. 
Ionic a majore tetrameter B. C. is called Sotadio. 

880.— VIII. IONIC METRE, a minore, §200. 

Dimeter. Tetrameter. 

is formed by joining a Dim. Cat. to 

a Dim. A. C. A Molossus ( ) 

in the odd places must always be 
A. C. preceded by an iambic syzygy. 



W W — — 1 

■w — -W — f 

— r 



The Ionic a minore, preceded or followed by a choriambus, is an- 
other form of Prosodiacus. For the Epi-Ionic, see § 199. 

881.— IX. P^EONIC OR CRETIC METRE, §201. 

A Paeonic metre. Dimeter, Trimeter, and Tetrameter, 

— www w are formed by a repetition of the metre ; a reso- 

~ ~ ^ w or w lution of — into ws-'is common. 



§205. SCANNING. 

882 — To those who are accustomed to the scanning of the Latin 
poets, the ordinary hexameter and regular systems of the Greek poets 
will present no difficulty. After a little exercise in these, the best 
praxis is furnished by the Choruses in the Dramatic writers, and the 
odes of Pindar ; as almost every line furnishes a different kind of verse. 



818 ACCENTS. § 206. 

and the student is compelled to make himself thoroughly acquainted 
both with the rules of quantity and of metre in order to discover it 

883 — In scanning, for example, the Proodus in the Medea of Euri- 
pides, beginning at the 131st line, after ascertaining the quantity oi 
each syllable, and comparing the whole line with the preceding tables, 
they will be as follows : 



131 


Anapaestic 


Dim. 


Ac 


132 


Dactylic 


Trim. 


« 


133 


Anapsestic 


Dim. 


H 


134 


Dactylic 


Trim. 


H. C. 


135 


Paeonic 


Dim. 


Ac. 


136 


Antispastic 


" 


" 


137 


Dactylic 


<< 


« pu 


138 


Antispastic 


« 


«< 



884. — Proceeding in the same way with the second Olympic ode of 
Pindar, it will be as follows : 

1. Periodicus, or circulating dimeter. 

2. Ionic Dimeter Catalectic 

3. Pseonic Dimeter Hypercatalectic 

4. Choriambic Dimeter Catalectic 

5. Iambic Dimeter Brachycatalectic 

6. Dochmiac — and so on of the others. 

885 — Note. In the choruses of the dramatic writers, and the odea 
of Pindar, each line of the antistrophe is the same kind of verse, and 
often, though not always, the order of syllables is the same, with the 
corresponding line of the preceding stroplie. 



§ 206. ACCENTS. 

886 — In the proper modulation of speech, it is necessary that one 
Byllable in every word should be distinguished by a tone or elevation 
of the voice On this syllable, the accent is marked in the Greek lan- 
guage. The elevation of voice does not lengthen the time of the sylla- 
ble ; so that accent and quantity are considered by the best critics as 
perfectly distinct, but by no means inconsistent with each other. These 
can be of no use to us now, as far as regards the pronunciation of the 
language, however useful in this respect thty may have been to those 
by whom it was spoken. Still, however, the study of these is useful 
as they serve to distinguish between words which are spelled alike, but 
have different significations. This difference was doubiless marked in 
the language as originally spoken by a different intonation, which, by 
the different marks called accents, it was intended to convey to the eye. 
Thus, in English, the words desert, and desert', though spelled -with 
the same letters, differ both in sound and meaning ; and this is marked 
by the accent. So in Greek, ouo)q and ouok;, spelled with the same let- 
ters, differ in meaning; and the difference of the accent would doubt- 
less lead the Greek to express this by a difference of tone which is now 
lost. Scapula has given a list of more than four hundred word* which 



§ 206. accents. 319 

are thus distinguished. The accents also indicate, in many cases, the 
quantity of one or more syllables of a word. 

887. — The accents in form are three : the acute ('), grave (' ;, and 
circumflex (" ). Strictly speaking, however, there is in reality but one 
accent, the acute, which is placed over a vowel to mark the emphatic 
6vllable. When the accent is marked on a diphthong, it is placed over 
the subjunctive vowel; as, fiatnAivq. 

888. — The accent is placed over one of he last three syllables 
only, and words are denominated accordingly, 

Oxytons, when accented on the final syllable ; as, deog. 
Paroxytons, when accented on the penult ; as, dv&Qconov. 
Proparoxytons, when accented on the antepenult; as, av~ 

&Q(t)7IOg. 

889 — The two last are called barytone because the final syllable 
is not accented, for every syllable not accented is called grave (ftciQvq); 
but the grave accent is never marked, as such, upon a syllable. 

890 — In the structure of a sentence, when any oxyton is followed 
by another word in continued discourse, the grave is used instead of 
tn« acute; as, Otu-; i^mTn-: but the word is still considered an oxyton. 

891 — When two syllables, the first of which is accented, are con- 
tract. <1 in - cireumfiex is used to denote that an acute or ac- 
cented syllable, an<l a grave or unaccented, are united; thus, q>t,km t as 
if, qi/.ii'o, qi/.<7>; qi/.iot,f(i, as if yueoifu, q>t).olnt,. Hence, if there be no 
accent on tin- first <>f the syllables to be contracted, there will be no 
circumflex on the contraction; thus, q>i>Xtolf<tjv, yikoinyv. But w con- 
tracted for 6o in the accusative singular of nouns in oi has not the 
circumflex. 

892. — It is evident, also, that as the accent mus^t be upon one 
of the lait three syllables, the circumflex must be upon one of the 
last two ; and words are denominated accordingly, 

Perispo7nenons y when the last syllable is circum flexed ; as, 

qildj for qifo'cQ. 
Properispomenons, when the penult is circumflexed ; as, <pdov- 

fiev for quXeofjiev. 

893 N. B. Of many words, both the uncontracted and contracted 

forms are in use ; but of others, the contracted form only remains, and 
we must conjecture from analogy what the uncontracted was; as, 
Zccqxov, w/ov, tov, ovv. This reasoning from analogy, however, pro- 
ceeds on the assumption that all syllables having the circumflex, were 
originally two, now united by contraction. Whether this was so or 
not, cannot be satisfactorily ascertained ; nor, if it could, would the 
knowledge be of much value, as the rules for the accentuation of words 
would still continue the same. 



320 ACCENTS. § 207 



§ 207. PLACE OF THE ACCENT IN THE NOMINATIVE. 

894. — No rule can be given for ascertaining the proper place 
of the accent in the nominative of noims and adjectives ; this 
is best learned from practice, and the use of a good Lexicon. 
The following observations, however, may be of use : 

1. The articles, pronouns, and prepositions, have the place of 
the accent marked in their inflexions in the grammar. 

2. In verhs, it is thrown as far back as possible, except eipi 
and cptjfii. 

3. The following have the accent on the last syllable, and are 
therefore oxytom ; viz., 

I All monosyllables which are not contracted; as, /(Iq, oq. "When 
they have suffered contraction, they take the circumflex ; as, yrj, 
(yict), q>kiq (q>doq). So also at-, vvv, ovv, uq, S^vq, fivq, raiq, or?, 
nalg, 7zT'Q, most or all of which are contractions. 2. All nouns ia 
tvq; as, (la(jt,).tv<;. 3. All verbals in ttjq; as, ^aoaxr^. 4. Ver- 
bals in rrjq; as, fia&tjrt'iq ; but those from verba in fit, on the 
penult; as, &irTjq. 5. Verbals in fiy and /xoq (from the perfect 
passive); as yQa/iftij, onaafioq. 6. Verbals in roq, from the 3d 
singular perfect passive ; as, no^roq ; except some compounds ; as, 
a,7io8iH xoq. 7. Verbals in r\ and a from the 2 perf. active ; as, 
(TtoXtj, dKxfOQcL. 8. Diminutives, patronymics, and other deriva- 
tive nouns in tq; as, xtqctfiiq, fiaauiq. 9. Compounds of nomo, 
dyo), tpeQu), ovQoq, fyyov', as, natdayioyoq, dtapoyd, nvXoi'Qoq, ou(if)ir 
fiotgyoq (but Traoct and ntqi throw back the accent ; as, 7zt(jn(jyoq). 
10. Adjectives in qq not contracted; as, dXtj&rjq. 11. Compound 
adjectives in tjq; as, ivq>irt]q; except compounds of t;&oq and a^xe'w ; 
as, xaxorj&^q, noddgxyq. 12. Adjectives in nj, tta, v ; as. n)i c, 
tjfitlct, Tjdv. 13. Adjectives in qoq ; as, awyjjoq. 14. Adjectives in 
txoq, from verbals in to?; as, notr\xtx6q from notriroq. 15. The 
adverbial terminations » and dov; as, d&fii, ofio&vfiadov. 

895. — Accent on the Penult. 

4. The following have the accent on the penult ; viz., 

1. Diminutives in vaxoq, tloq, uav ; as, vtaviaxoq, naiSiaxtj, raiviXoq, 
/io)qLo)v. 2. Nouns in ftoi', denoting a place ; as, Avxtiov, <fcc. 
3. Nouns in vvtj ; as, Stxatoavvtj. 4. Nouns in kx, if derived from 
adjectives in oc; as, (ptXLa. If derived from substantives, the 
accent varies ; as, axQaxtd from atQaroq. 5. Nouns in ua derived 
from verbs in evo>; as, ^aatXtia from fiaatXfva). 6. Almost all 
nouns denoting national relation; as, 'PofiaToq. 7. Verbals in 
xo)q; as, ^rwo, xt/jtioq. 8. Adjectives in f*q usaa, tv\ as, /a- 
qhitq. 9. Adjectives in wSr^ ; &s, Xt&d>dr;q. 10. Verbal adjectives 
in *oc; as, yycmrloq. 11. Comparatives in uov; as, fiiXruor. 12. 
Adverbs of quantity in ccxiq ; as, xqtadxtq, noXXdx*q. 13. Adverbi 
in tyv; as, avXXriPdnv. 



§ 208, 209. accents. 321 

896. — Composition. 

5. Compound words in many instances, especially in adverbs, 
retain the accent on the syllable where it stood in the simple ; 
a>, ccvroqi, ovoavo&tv. In the following cases, however, the ac- 
cent is drawn back to the antepenult ; viz., 

1. Words compounded of particles, a, ev, dvg, oV, 6[io, aort, 
avTi'j neat, nuod, vno, &c. ; as, dnvatog from maiog, di\fsv%og 
from U'i"/J r 

2. Words compounded of two adjectives ; as, yikoaocpog : of 
two substantives ; as, vavx\i]Qog : of adjectives and substantives ; 
as, qi).o6zooyog. 



§ 208. GENERAL RULES. 

897. — I. If the final syllable is long, the accent on the penult 
is the acute ; thus, dv\}Q(07iov, dovad (dual), ocpecog, n^Xeiddem, 

XV7T7QJ, 7V7TTta\}(ti. 

Obs. The Attic terminations emv and ewg, in the second and 
third declensions, and the Ionic eco in the first, are considered as 
forming one syllable ; as, urar/ewv, noltag. 

898.— II. If the final syllable be short, then 

1. In dissyllables, the accent on the penult, if short, is the 
acute ; as, tvtztb ; if long, with the final syllable short, the accent 
is the circumflex ; as, /«««, Sovaa (sing.). 

2. In poh/s>/llables, the accent on the antepenult is the acute ; 

thus, UViyQOQXOg, aV&Q(Q7T0l, %V7lZ0\ltV y JVTTTOfiai. 

Obs. 1. The diphthongs oi and ai final, and syllables long by 
position only, are considered short in accentuation ; thus, avka% t 
uvXtixog. 

Obs. 2. These rules apply to the inflections of nouns, and to 
all the parts of verbs except as in the following — 



§209. SPECIAL RULES. 

899. 1. IN THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

1. The first declension has the circumflex on the ultimate of 
the genitive plural ; thus, [iovgwv, from fiovaa. 

Exc. The feminine of baryton adjectives in og follows the 
first general rule ; uyitov from dyiog (not dyim) ; £*Wj> from 
%evog ; also, ^jjffrow, %Xovvcov, irnaimv. 



322 accents. § 209. 

2. Oxytons of the first and second declensions, circumflect the 
last syllable in the genitive and dative ; thus, zipty 7i[iijg, 7tnjj, 
zifirjvj zifiav ; xa).6g, xulov ; xaXoi, xa/.oig. 

3. In the third declension, the acute accent on the last sylla- 
ble of the nominative is transferred to the penult in the oblique 
cases ; thus, cram/p, ocoztjoog, amzriqcov (Rule I.) ; naztjQ, nazt- 
Qog ; zoidg, zoiddog. 

Exc. 1. The final syllable of vocatives in sv and ot change the 
acute into the circumflex ; as, fiaadevg, fiuoifov ; xIgj&u, x/.w&oi. 

Exc. 2. MrjTtjo and {rvydzr t Q 9 though barytons, accent the pe- 
nult ; as, [inrtQog. 

Exc. 3. Genitives and datives of t vo syllables, have the cir- 
cumflex on the final syllable long, and the acute on the final syl- 
lable short ; as, fi?jv6g, fir { vi f fiijvoh'y fflvav, fxr^aij dvar, bvai But 
Tig and participles follow the general rule ; as, jircor, {ttrrog, 
ovai ; also, tiddcov, d/jnocw, ftcocov, xgdrcovy 7zuidm>, 7 poW, ov- 
zcov, ywzcov (of lights), ndrKov, naai. 

Also syncopated nouns and yvrtj, except the dative plural ; 
as, naroog, 7Ta.7Q(av, nazqaai ; yviur/.og. 

Also, a short vowel of the genitive from a long vowel in the 
nominative, throws back the accent in the vocative : thus, dvr t g t 
dveoog, dvsQ ; evdaificor, evdaijiovog, tvdaiuov. Except when 
the penult is long not by position ; as, Mu%dor, ZaoTrifiov. 

900. — II. IN VERBS. 

1. Monosyllables, being long, are circumflected; as, gj, elg, 
cpijg, §tj for e{fy. 

2. A long syllable after the characteristic is circumflected, 
1st. In the active and middle voices, both in the future of liquid 

verbs ; and in the Attic future of all verbs. 
2d. In the passive voice, in the subjunctive of the *orists, and in 
the subjunctive of the present of verbs in pi ; thus, axeoco, 

<J7T8D€ig, OTIEQElV, G71EQ&V, G7Z€Q0V[iai 7V71W> TVTZOVfiii; 7V71- 

oTui, 7V7Zov[iai — zvcp&co — zvTzijg — zi&ai — zt&cofiai. 
Exc. Except when the last syllable ends in nv ; as, zv7izoizr t r 
(see 1st General Rule). 

3. The third person of the optative in ot and cu has the acute 
accent on the penult ; as, rm'gro/, dotoca. 

Except in the futures mentioned in rule 2d. 

4. The imperatives iX&e, eiW, svqs, ios, la ffe', have the acuta 
accent on the final syllable. 

But the imperative circumflects the last syllable in the second 



§210,211. accents. 323 

person singular in the second aorist middle ; thus, zvttov. Ex- 
cept ytvov, zqukov, in-yxov. 

5. The infinitive of the second aorist active circumflects the 
final syllable ; thus, zvntiv, viz. as if contracted from zvmfuvcu, 
rvTzeptv, TVJtesp, zvneiv. 

The infinitive of the first aorist active — of the second aorist 
middle — of both aorists passive — of all the perfects — and of the 
active voice of verbs in \u y has the accent on the penult ; viz., 
the circumflex on the long penult, and the acute on the short ; 

thus, fO&CU, tXttOCU, UXOVCUl TVntO&Ul ZVCp&7]Vttl, 1V7Z7JVUI — 

ztzviftna, lEivxtvatj ztzvcp&ai, miftXTjo&ai — iozdvui. 

6. The participles of the second aorist active, and of the pres- 
ent active of verbs in [it, and all ending in tog or etg, have the 
acute accent on the final syllable ; thus, zvncov, iazdg, diSovg, 
zezvqcog, rvqt&stg. 

The participles of the perfect passive have the acute accent 
on the penult ; as, rswfifit'vog. 

Except when abbreviated; as, dsyfisvog for deStjfAwog. 

7. Eifii, I am, and qp ijfxi, I say, have the acute accent on the 
final syllable of the indicative (except the second singular) ; thus, 

Obs. When usti is emphatical, or forms the copula between 
the subject and its predicate, it throws back the accent ; thus, 
uvOpGjTiog iazi fcaov, man is an animal ; tazi dv&Qomog, — zi 
8' Sort; This is commonly, though improperly, classed under 
enclitics. 

§210. IN CONSTRUCTION. 

901. — Words accented on the last syllable, when that is lost 
by apostrophe, throw the accent back ; as, ozivu — oelv my. 

Exc. 1. Alia, and the prepositions are excepted, which lose 
their accent. 

Exc. 2. Prepositions placed after their cases (dvd and 8id ex- 
cepted), throw back the accent ; thus, 71eql — tyvx>ig fitQi. 



§211. PROCLITICS OR ATONICS. 

902 — The following tea words, when written by themselves or be- 
fore another word, have no accent, but seem to rest upon and form, as 
it were, part of the word following; viz. the articles 6, rj, ol, at; the 
prepositions fcr, tu; (it;), ex. c{ ; the conjunctions it, ok ; and the nega- 
tive adverb ov (om, oi>x)- 



324 ACCENTS. § 212. 

But these words have the accent when it is thrown back upon them 
from an enclitic following ; as, iiye ; in the end of a sentence ; as, noiq 
yctQ ov, why not ? after the word on which they rest ; as, &i bq wq, like 
a god; xaxorv ££, in consequence of evils. Also the article, used as a 
personal pronoun, often has the accent ; as, o yo\q tjX&i. 



§212. ENCLITICS. 

903 — Enclitics (from eyxXivai) are so denominated, because, like the 
Latin que, they lean or rest their accent upon the preceding word as 
forming a part of it, and have no emphasis on themselves. They are, 

1. Mov, fitv, fiol, fie, — gov, aiv, aol, ae, — ov, ot, t, — /iiv, vlv, ayiv, — 
a<po)£, ayi, o~(peaq, ayiai, ayewv, and the indefinite rlq, in all cases and 
dialects. 

2. Elfil and (ptjpii in the indicative present, except in the second per- 
son singular. 

3. llij, Ttov, no), no>q, no&iv, noxe, not interrogative 

4. ri, re, xi, xev, vvv, neq, qd, xoi. 

904. RULES. 

I. Enclitics throw back their accent on the last syllable of the pre- 
ceding word when its antepenult has the acute accent, or its penult, 
the circumflex ; as, av&qomoq earu — yk&i fiot, cw/ia fiov, ov xt. 

Note 1. In this case the acute accent is always used, though the 
enclitic may have a circumflex 

Note 2. When the preceding word ends in a double consonant, and 
will not easily coalesce with the enclitic following, the accent remains 
unchanged ; as, buijhl fiov. 

II. Monosyllabic enclitics lose their accent when the preceding word 
has any accent on the final syllable, or the acute on the penult ; as, 
dyanaq fie, avriq xiq, xvnxo) at. 

Dissyllabic enclitics lose their accent when the preceding word has 
an acute, or a circumflex (in this instance regarded as an acute) on the 
final syllable ; as, xaXoq eaxw, xaXov nvoq, for xaXbq eaxiv, xaXov xwoq. 
But they retain their accent when the penult has the acute ; as, Xoyoq 
rwoq, Xoyoq eaxiv. 

Obs. The principle of these rules is, that two successive syllables in 
the same word cannot be accented, and that a circumnected syllable ia 
equivalent to one acuted followed by another unaccented. 

III. If several enclitics follow each other, the last only is without 
the accent, the accent of each being thrown back on the word which 
precedes it ; as, ei — eX xiq xiva <paai fio>>. 

IV. The enclitic pronouns retain their accent after prepositions, and 
after evexa, and % ; as, diet ae. 

V. All the enclitics retain their accent when they are emphatic, and 
when they begin a clause. 

VI. 'Eaxi accents its first syllable when it begins a sentence or ia em- 
phatical, or follows dXX , el, ovx, u>q, or tout ; as, oi'x eaxu. 



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Adapted to Bullions' Latin Grammar. 

The publishers refer with great satisfaction to the distinguished 

names of some of the best instructors aud educators of the present 

>. hose names are appended, who have long used some or all of 

Dr. Hullions' books, and who have recommended them either in 

whole or in part. 

NOTICES. 
" Bullions' books, by their superior arrangement and accuracy, 
their completeness as a series, and the references from one to the 
other, supply a want more perfectly than any other books have 
done. They bear the marks of the instructor as well as the 
scholar. It requires more than learning to make a good school- 
book." Professor C. S. Pennel, 

Antioch College, Ohio. 

] >r. Nott, LL. D., N. Y. A. H. Lackey, Pa. 

Rev. Dr. Potter, LL. D., Pa. Prof. R. M. Moore, 111. 

])r. Beck, LL. D., N. Y. J. E. Lattimer, N. H. 

Dr. Proudfit, LL. D., N. Y. B. P. Aydelott, Ohio. 

Joseph Nickerson, N. H. W. G. Finney, Ohio. 

K. Bl Brown, N. Y. S. McCormick, Ohio. 

W. E. Pierce, Ohio. Benjamin Smith, N. Y. 

II. E Whipple, Mich. M. Clanchy, Pa. 

A. McDougall, N. Y D. G. Frazer, N. Y. 

M. P. Covert, N. Y. W. S. Boyart, Florida. 

J. F. Cadv, R. I. R. McMurray, Ohio. 

M. G. McKoon, N. Y. Rev. Z. S. Barstow, N. H. 

J. W. Allen, N. Y. M. Carpenter, N. H. 

B. Wilcox, N. Y. Thomas Leonard, Tenn. 
Salem Town, LL. D. John Kellev, Pa. 

W. W. Benjamin. N. H. A. Holmes," N. Y 



Dr. Bullions Series of Works. 



Jas. E. Lattimer, N. H. E. J. Avery, Mass. 

John Trembly, Ohio. Prof. H. YVheeler, Ind. 

F. Crafts, Mass. Prof. J Towler, X. Y. 

C. Walker, Mass. W. L. Xicholas, Ohio. 

A. Smyth, Ohio. Rev. George Looniia, Del 
W. B. Bunnell, X. Y. J. Reid, R. L 

R. D. Van Kleck, R. L W. E. Todd, X. H. 

Jas. J. Helm, X. J. R. W. Fin lev, Mo. 

Jos. J. Fravelli, Pa. Robert Thomson, X. Y. 

R. H. Bishop, Ohio. David Parsons, Ohio. 

B. C. Ward, Pa. Isaac Booth, Pa. 

0. H. Drumraond, Ohio. J. A. Goodwin, X. Y. 

Rev. J. McCanley, Va. O. L. Leonard, Ky. 

Wm. M. Russeil,*Mass. E. C. Bovle, Ohio. 

D. Harris, X. J. M. H. Patten, Mo. 
J. P. W. Jenks, Mass. A. C. Roe, Conn. 
A. Mong, Pa. Lewis Bradley, Pa. 
Joel Whitney, X. Y. Charles A Lord, Mo. 
Lewis Vail, Pa. Rev. A. A. Livermore, X. H. 

E. L. Hazel tine, D. D., S. C. Pliny Fisk, X. Y. 

E. D. McMaster, Ohio. Lyman Harding, Ohio. 

L. Strong, X. Y. Wm. Jones, Oregon. 
And others from all parts of the Union. 



From the Southern Repertory and College Review. 

" Bullions' Series of Grammars and Elementary Classics, through ths 
kindness of the publishers, have been placed upon our table. Although 
we have been familiar with some of Bullions' books for years, we have 
not had until now the opportunity of examining the entire series of 
grammars. T^his examination we have made with much pleasure, which 
increased as we progressed. We think that these books ought to be in- 
troduced into our primary schools, academies, and colleges forthwith, 
even to the exclusion of others, which were good 'in their day.' but 
■which have got hehind the times. Every teacher has experienced the 
inconvenience, and every student has felt the embarrassment, arising 
from a change of text-books from one author to anothe;, on the same 
subject. True, principles may be ever the same; but each author has 
his own mode of expression and illustration — each has his plan. 

" In the series one uniform plan is pursued through the grammars 
of the English, Latin, and Greek languages. The young beginner who 
masters the Practical Lessons in English Grammar, is not only prepared 
for the Analytical and Practical Grammar, and the still higher Exercises 
in Analysis and Parsing, but can take hold of the Latin and Greek 
Grammars, with a good knowledge beforehand of the plan to be pur- 
sued. We are for Bullions' books, as well as for some others, which we 
hope hereafter to notice, issued from the press of those excellent book- 
makers, Farmer, Brace & Co., late Pratt, Woodford & Co." 



Coopers Virgil. 



I use Bullions' works — all of them — and consider them the best 
of the kind that have been issued in this or any other language. 
If they wer^inivermlly u?ed we would not have so many super- 
ficial scholars, and the study of the classics would be more likely 
to serve the end fur which it was designed — the strengthening and 
adorning of the mind. J. B. Tiiompsox, A. M., 

late Rector of the Somerville Classical Institute, JS r . J, 

Bullions' English Grammars are introduced into the Public and 

■ f the Private Schools, the Latin School the English High School, 
th4 City Normal School, of the city <" f Boston ; Normal Schools 01 
Bridge water and Westfleld ; Marlborough Academy ; cities of Salem 

ryport, &c , Mass. ; Portsmouth, and several academies in New 
-hire ; and re-adopted in Albany and Troy, New York. They are 

over seventy academies in New York, and in many of the most 
flourishing institutions in every State of rhe Union. 



Cooper's Virgil, with English Notes.— (2 00.) 

Having examined the Rev. J. G. Cooper's edition of the works 
of Virgil, I have no hesitation of giving my opinion, that the plan 
which he has pursued is excellent, and the execution highly credit- 
able to Ids talents and scholarship. Such a work will greatly 
facilitate the study of the poet, on the part of the youthful learner. 
It u ill give him a correct idea of the meaning of the author in the 
more difficult \ md by its copious notes upon ancient his- 

tory and mythology, will enable him to relish beauties that are 
now rarely perceived iii the early course of classical instruction. I 
no doubt but that its appearance will be welcomed by the in- 
ot and discerning, as a publication admirably adapted to en- 
li-t the feelings and stimulate the application of youth, in the 
elementary schools of our country. 

George P. Chapman, D. D., 
formerly of Pennsylvania University. 

Similar opinions have been expressed by the following literary 
and scientific gentlemen: 

James Roes, LL D., John T. Kirkland, D. D., 

James Ken wick, LL. D., Henry Ware, D. D., 

\Y. C. Wyatt,D. D., John S. J. Gardner, D. D., 

William Harris, D. D., Wm. Rafferty, D. D., 

Juhn Bowden, D. D., . Edward Sparks, M. D., 

James Kemp, D. D., E D. Barry, D. D., 

Gideon Bhickburn, D. D., Prof. J. S. Kingsley, Yale CoL 
And many others. 

I* 



10 Prof. Peissner's English- German Grammar. 

A Comparative English-German Grammar.— (|i oo.) 
Based on the affinity of the two languages, by Peof. Elias Peissxee, 
late of the University of Munich, now of Waion College^ 
Schenectady. 

From, the New York Churchman. 

Of all the German Grammars we have ever examined, this is 
the most modest and unpretending — and yet it contains a system 
and a principle which is the life of it, as clear, as practical, as effec- 
tive for learning Grammar as any thing we have ever seen put 
forth, with so much more pretence of originality and show of phi- 
losophy. In travelling from England to Germany, a man might 
commence his journey in England : he must first pass through 
those parts which lie most contiguous to the land to which he is 
going ; he should cross the separating line at the point or points 
where the two adjacent countries have most features in common, 
and his first explorations in the new land will be in those quarters 
which remind him most of the scenes and associations from which 
he is departing. This is the pervading principle of the Grammar 
before us, and, truism as it may appear, it contains the secret of 
the easy acquisition of a foreign language, especially one that has 
many affinities both in words and idioms to our own. 

The principle on which this book is grounded gives it a strong 
claim to every teacher through examination. It will be found, 
too, we think, that the author has not only presented a new idea 
of much interest in itself, but has admirably carried it out in the 
practical lessons and exercises of his work. 

From Professor J. Foster, of Schenectady. 
I have examined Prof. Peissner's German Grammar with some 
attention ; have marked with interest the rapid advancement of 
students here using it as a text-book, and have myself carefully 
tested it in the instruction of a daughter eleven years of age. The 
result is a conviction that it is most admirably adapted to secure 
easy, pleasant and real progress, and that from no other work 
which has come under my notice can so satisfactory a knowledge 
of the language be obtained in a given time. 

From the Albany Morning Express. 
This is one of the very best treatises of its kind now extant. 
Those who are acquainted with the science and practice of lan- 
guage will need but a simple statement of some of its points, in 
order to appreciate its superior merit. 

From the Schenectady Reflector. 
It seems to us to meet more successfully than any other Gram 
mar, the case of those who desire an accurate knowledge and prac- 
tice of the German language, through a method at once easy, rapid, 
and scientific. 



Prof. J. B. DodcVs Series. \ \ 

PROF. J. B. DODD'S MATHEMATICAL SERIES 

COMPRISES — 

An Elementary and Practical Arithmetic, . $0 45 

High School Arithmetic, 84 

Elements of Algebra, 84 

Higher Algebra, 1 50 

Key to Algebra, 84 

Elements of Geometry, 1 00 

AND KEYS TO THE ABOVE. 

These Arithmetics are believed to be unrivalled in the follow- 
ing particulars : 

1. The philosophical accurateness with which their topics are 
arranged so as to show the mutual dependence and relationship ot 
their subjects. 

2. The scientific correctness and practical convenience of their 
greatly improved nomenclature. 

3. The clear and concise manner in which principles are stated 
and explanation* are given. 

4. Brevity and completeness of rules. 

5. The distinctness with which the true connection between 
Arithmetic and its cognate branches is developed. 

6. The excellent and thorough intellectual discipline super 
induced. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

From R. T. P. Allen, Superintendent of Kentucky Military 
Institute. 

" Upon a careful examination of a manuscript Treatise on 
Arithmetic by Prof. Dodd, I find it greatly superior to all others 
which have come under my notice, in system, completeness and 
nomenclature. The arrangement is natural, the system complete, 
and the nomenclature greatly improved. These improvements are 
not slight ; they are fundamental — eminently worthy the attention 
of the Mathematical Teacher, and give a character of unity to the 
work, which at once distinguishes it from all others on this subject. 

M I believe it admirably adapted to the purposes of instruction; 
in fact, by far the most convenient and usable book for teacher and 
puj/il I haze yet met icith ; and will, with great pleasure, adopt it 
in the Institute, and recommend its adoption by all." 

From John Brocklesby. A. M., Prof, of Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy, in Trinity College, Conn. 
" From a careful examination of the Arithmetic of Prof. Dodd, 
I have been led to entertain a favorable opinion of the work. It is 



12 Prof. J. B. Dodd's Series. 

philosophical in its arrangement, and exact and clear in its n /*s 
and explanations. The examples are such as to hring the minr of 
the pupil into active exercise. I should select this book to pwtee 
in the hands of a child in preference to others upon the same sub- 
ject which have obtained a wide-spread circulation." 

From Jennette L. Douglass, Newburgh, N. Y. 

" I have examined with great care, and much interest, ' Dodd'«High 
School Arithmetic,' and am fully convinced that it is a book of rare 
merit, and is not surpassed by any in use. Furthermore, alter a year's 
careful study of 'Dodd's High School Algebra,' and after having thor- 
oughly tested the application of its rules, and the precision, clearness and 
force of the same, hesitate not to say that it has no superior, if any equal, 
in the range of Algebraic Science." 

From the Associate Principal of Mount Palatine Academy. 

" I have examined Dodd's Arithmetic, and am fully persuaded 
that it is superior to any other with which I am acquainted. I 
could speak in detail were it necessary ; but all that is required 
to establish its reputation and introduction, is to have it known by 
Teachers.'''' C. M. Weight, Inst. 

From the Faculty of Poch River Seminary. 
" Upon an examination of Prof. Dodd's Arithmetic, we have 
come to the conclusion that its superior arrangement, the clearness 
of its rules and explanations, and its improved nomenclature, entitle 
it to the careful consideration of the Mathematical Teacher : that 
these improvements distinguish it from all others that have come 
under our notice. We therefore give it our cordial approbation, 
and shall introduce it immediately into our Seminary." 

D. J. Pinoknet, Principal. 

S. M. Fellows, Prof, of Mathematics. 

Silas Searle, Prof, of Languages. 

" Dodd's High School Arithmetic is better adapted to supply the 
wants of High Schools and Academies than any other Arithmetic 
which I have ever met. His rules are plain, concize, definitely 
stated, and fully illustrated with examples." 

G. M. Barker, 
Baldwin Institute, Ohio. 

" I have Dodd's Higher Arithmetic, and unhesitatingly pro- 
nounce it the best work for advanced classes I have ever seen." 

M. S. LlTTLEFIELD, 

Grand Rapids, Mich. 



Prof. J. B. Dodd's Series. 1 3 

Similar testimonials have been received from the following 
gentlemen whose names are attached, in favor of one or both these 
Arithmetics : 

EL A. Wilson, Jonesville. L. Dickerman, N". H. 

R. S. Thurmer, Ind. J. G. Hoyt, do. 

A. P. Chute, Mas* M. L. Brown, N. Y. 

Rev. J. A McCanley, Va. W. E. Pierce, Ohio. 

W. Spiudler, Ohio. N. T. Allen, Mass. 

J. W. P. Jenks, Mass. N. McDougall, N. Y. 

W. L. Harris, Wesleyan A. Wood, Maine. 

University. Ohio. J. R. Art, Indiana. 

A. Iv. Shide, M A. Morse, Nantucket. 

W. R Clark, Mich. G. C. Merrifield, Ind. 

James Campbell, Ohio. T. A. Benton, Ohio. 

W. W. Howard, Kv. Isaiah Dole, Maine. 

W. B. Slaughter, Pa. J. Estabrook, Mich. 

W. A. Bacon, Mich. J. Towler, N. Y 

Rev. George Loomis, Delaware. M. F. Cowdery, Sandusky, Ohio. 
C. B. Crump, N. Y. 

Prof. Dodd's Algebras have received the most flattering enco- 
miums from teachers who have used thera in the school-room. 
They are, probably, the most clear and comprehensive works on 
Algebra in print. 



TESTIMONIALS. 

We have introduced Dodd's Algebra into the Genesee Wes- 
leyan Seminary, as a permanent text-book. 

Prof. W. H. De Put. 
Dodd's Algebra possesses excellencies pertaining to no other 
work. R. H. Mooee, 111. 

I am much pleased with Dodd's Algebra, and will introduce it. 

Rev. J. A. MoOanlet, Va. 
I use Professor Dodd's Algebra, and shall continue it as our 
regular text-book. Osoab IIaeeis, N. J. 

From Pbof. A. L. Hamilton, Prest. of Andrew College. 

I have examined with some care Prof. Dodd's Elements of Geo- 
metry, and, so far as I am capable of judging, I conceive it to be 
iu many respects decidedly the best work of the kind extant. For 
simplicity, exactness, and completeness, it can have no superior. 
Like his Arithmetic and Algebra, in many important particn!< M », 
his Geometry stands pre-eminent, and alone. 



14 Enos's Intellectual and Practical Arithmetic. 

Schell's Introductory Lessons in Arithmetic,— ($1 oo.) 

Designed as an introduction to the study of any mental or written 
Arithmetic. It contains a large amount of mental questions, toge- 
ther with a large number of questions to be performed on the 
slate ; thus combining mental and written exercises for young be- 
ginners. This is a very attractive little book, superior to any of 
its class. It leads the pupil on by the easiest steps possible, and 
yet insures constant progress. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

1 have carefully examined the manuscript of " Schell's Intro- 
ductory Lessons in Arithmetic," and am convinced that it is alto- 
gether superior to any text-book of the kind with which I am ac- 
quainted. It is peculiarly adapted to the wants of beginners, the 
language being simple, the definitions clear, the examples easy, and 
the transition from one subject to another gradual and natural. 
I cannot too much commend the system which the author has 
adopted throughout, of fully illustrating every principle as he ad- 
vances, by numerous mental and written exercises, rendering 
thereby one rule perfectly familiar before he passes to the next. 

It is unnecessary to do more than to ask the attention of teachers 
to this work ; they cannot examine it impartially without being 
convinced of its superior merits. It will, no doubt, become one 
of the most popular of school-books. 

Geo. Payne Quaceexbos, 
Rector of Henry st. Grammar School, y. Y. 

I wish to introduce Schell's little Arithmetic. It is just the 
thing for beginners. Send six dozen. J. Mabkham. Ohio. 

I am highly pleased with Schell's little book, and shall use it. 

G. C. Mebbifield, Ind. • 

Schell's little book for children is a beau-ideal of my own, and 
of course it suits. D. F. Dewolf, Ohio. 

The School Committee have adopted Schell's Arithmetic for 
our public schools. Send us three hundred. 

D. G. Heffeon, Supt. Schools. Utioa. 



An Intellectual and Practical Arithmetic— ($o 25) ; 

C/, First Lessons in Arithmetical Analysis. By J. L. Enos, 
Graduate of tfo jV". Y. State formal Schools. 

The same clearness and conciseness characterize this admirable 
Dook that belong to the works of Prof. Dodd. The natural ar- 
rangements of the text, and the logical mode of solving the ques 



Whitlock's Geometry and Surveying. 15 

tions, is a peculiar and important feature belonging to this book 
alone. 



KECOMMENDATIONS. 

I have examined with care and interest, Enos's Mental Arith- 
metic, and shall introduce it at once into the Academy. 

Prof. 0. M. "Weight. 
We have examined an intellectual Arithmetic, by J. L. Enos, 
and like it much. We shall immediately use it in our school. 

Prof. D. I. Pixoksey, 
S. M. Fellows, 
S. Searle, 

Rock River Seminary, 

Having used Enos's Mental Arithmetic in my school, I believe 
ft to be superior to all other works of the kind. 

W. Bailey, K Y. 



Whitlock's Geometry and Surveying,— ($1 50.) 

Is a work for advanced students possessing the highest claims upon 
the attention of Mathematical Teachers. In comparison with other 
works of the kind, it presents the following advantages: 

1. A better connected, and more progressive methed of geo- 
metrizing, calculated to enable the student to go alone. 

2. A fuller, more varied and available practice, by the intro- 
duction of more than four hundred exercises, arithmetical, demon- 
strative and algebraical, so chosen as to be serviceable rather than 
amusing, and so arranged as greatly to aid in the acquisition of the 
theory. 

3. The bringing together of such a body of geometrical know- 
ledge, theoretical and practical, as every individual on entering into 
active life demands. 

4. A system of surveying which saves two thirds the labor re- 
quired by the ordinary process. 

This work is well spoken of universally, and is already in use in 
some of the best institutions of this country. It is recommended 
by Prof. Pierce, of Cambridge ; Prof. Smith, of Middletown ; Prof. 
Dodd, of Lexington, and many other eminent mathematicians. 

From E. M. Morse, Esq : — I consider that I have obtained more 
mathematical knowledge from Whitlock's Geometry, than from all 
other text-books combined. Unlike too many treatises of a similar 
nature, it is eminently calculated to make mathematicians. 



16 



Dr. Com.stock^s Series. 



Prof. Palmer's Bookkeeping,— <$o 67.) 

KEY AND BLANKS. 

This excellent book is superior to the books generally used 
because 

1. It contains a large number of business blanks to be filled by 
the learner, such as deeds, mortgages, agreements, assignments, 
&c. &c. 

2. Explanations from page to page, from Article to Article, and 
to settle principles of law in relation to deeds, mortgages, &c, &c. 

3. The exercises are to be written out, after being calculated. 
In other works the pupil is expected to copy, merely. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 
Joseph H. Palmer, Esq. ; 

Sir,— It has afforded me pleasure to read your excellent 
Treatise on Bookkeeping. The Perspicuity of its style is admirable, 
and with its peculiar arrangement, with references and laconic defi- 
nitions, makes it at once invaluable to the young accountant, as a 
primary and practical work on the most approved method of l< 
accounts. Hiram Dixon, 

Accountant at Adams & Co., 16, 18, 19, Wall st. 

Similar testimonials have been received from the teachers of the 
Free Academy, and others, N. Y. 



Horace Webster, LL. D. 

J. J. Owen, D. D. 

G. B. Docharty, LL. D. 

J. T. Bentdice, A. M. 

J. Graef Barron, A. M. 

D. Cartled^e. 

A. H. Wheeler. 

Wm. Palmer. 

D. K. Bull. 

S. Kendall. 

Joseph Keen, Super'nt Com. 

Schools, N. Y. Ciiy. 
J. J. Doane, Principal Ward 

School No. 20, N. Y. 
Thos. Faulke, Principal Ward 

No. 30, N. Y. 



N. W. Starr, Principal Ward 

School No. 29. Iff. Y. 
J. E. Whitehead, Principal 

Ward School No. 23, N. Y. 
J. J. Anderson, Principal Ward 

School No. 16. N. Y. 
L. Hazeltine, Principal Ward 

School No. 14, N. Y. 
S. Reynold, Principal Wil- 
liams burgh Grammar School, 

N. Y. 
A Marceilus, Principrl Wil- 

liamsburgh Academy. 
H. D. Woodworth, Principal 

Ward School No. 2. N. Y. 



Dr. Comstock's Series of Books on the Sciences, viz. : 

Introduction to Natural Philosophy. For Children. . $0 4S 

System of Natural Philosophy, Newly revised and enlarged, 

including late discoveries, 1 00 



Dr. ComstocJc's Series. 17 

Elements of Chemistry. Adapted to the present state of the 

Science, . , 1 00 

The Young Botanist. New edition, . . . . 50 

Elements of Botany. Including Vegetable Physiology, and a 

Description of Common Plants. With Cuts, . . . 1 25 
Outlines of Physiology, both Comparative and Human. To 
which is added OUTLINES OF ANATOMY, excellent for 
the general scholar and ladies' schools, . . . . 80 
New Elements of Geology, Highly Illustrated, . . 1 25 

Elements of Mineralogy. Illustrated with numerous Cuts, 75 
Natural History of Birds. Showing their Comparative Size. 

A new and valuable feature, 50 

Natural History of Beasts. Ditto. . . . 50 

Natural History of Birds and Beasts. Ditto. Cloth, . 1 00 
Questions and Illustrations to the Philosophy, . . . 30 
All the above works are fully illustrated by elegant cuts. 
The Philosophy has been republished in Scotland, and trans- 
lated for the usu of schools in Prussia. The many valuable addi- 
tions to the work by its transatlantic Editors, Prof. Lees, of 
Edinburgh, and Prof, lloblyn, of Oxford, have been embraced by 
the author in his last revision. The Chemistry has been entirely 
i, and contains all the late discoveries, together with methods 
of analyzing minerals and metals. Portions of the series are in 
ooorse of publication in London. Such testimony, in addition to 
the general good testimony of teachers in this country, is sufficient 
to warrant us in Baying that no works on similar subjects can equal 
them, or have ever been so extensively used. It is a remarkable 
fact, that when interested persons have attacked these works, and 
succeeded in g >tting in their own, a little time has dissipated the 
mist, and they heme found their way hack again. Anew edition 
of the Botany, with an enlarged Flora, is just ready. 

The Phylosophy baa just been thoroughly revised, andfor the sixth time 
newly stereotyped. There is no book of its size in the world (we believed 
that has ever had a circulation equal to it. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 
John Griscom, LL. D., N. Y. A. C. Wright, D. C. 

W. 11. Seward. A. McDougald, N. Y. 

W. T. Bonte, Canada. G. 0. Merrifield, Ind. 

R. M. Biowii. KT. Y. Rev. J. P. Cowles, Mass. 

A Wood, N. J. M. E. Dunham, N. Y. 

M. P. Covert, N. J. J. M. Stone, N. H. 

B. Hallowell, Ya. W. R. White, Ya. 

A. L. Smith, Ya. A. F. Ross, N. Y. 

A H. Drummond, Ohio. T. Valentine, Albany. 

The sale of 800,000 copies of the Philosophy would seem to 
lender notices superfluous. 



18 Prof. Hooker's Physiology. 

Human Physiology and Hygeine— ($1 25.) First Book in do.— (to 66) 
Designed for Colleges and the Higher Classes in Schools, and for 
General Reading. ByWorthington Hooker, M. D.. Professor 
of the Theory and Practice of Medicine in Yale College. 
Illustrated with nearly 200 Engravings. 
This is an original work and not a compilation. It presents the 
subject in a new light, and at the same time embraces all that is 
valuable for its purpose, that could be drawn from the most emi- 
nent sources. The highest encomiums are received from all quar- 
ters ; a few are subjoined. 



We can truly say that we believe this volume is of great value, 
and we hope that the rare merits of the diligent author will be 
both appreciated and patronized. 

Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. 

Dr. Hooker writes with perspicuity, explains difficult points 
with simplicity, and adapts the subject well to school instruction 
and general reading. American Journal of Science and Arts. 

Here is the remedy for a want which is so evidently a want, 
and that now we have it supplied, it seems an absurdity to have 
lived on wanting it. The present work is a popular treatise, at- 
tractive enough to be read, and with compass enough to allow the 
author's* fertility of illustrative anecdote to come into play. There 
is no need of commending the work to the attention of a com- 
munity where Dr. Hooker is so well knowa as he is among us. 

Norwich Courier. 

I am ready to pronounce it unqualifiedly the most admirable 
book or work on the human system that has fallen under my 
notice, and they have not been few. If any one desires a complete 
and thorough elucidation of the great science discussed, they can 
nowhere be better satisfied than in the perusal of Dr. Hooker's 
most excellent work. B. F. Tewksbury, Lenoxville, Pa. 

•• 1 have thoroughly examined Hooker's Physiology. The hints con- 
tained in the Preface are of more value to a practical teacher than many 
entire works upon the same subject. In my opinion the book needs only 
to be known to be appreciated, it will speak for itself. 

E. F. Stkoxu, Principal Public High School, West Mcridcn, Ct. 



Elements of Meteorology.— {$0 75.) 

Designed for Schools and Academies. By John Beockelsby, A.M., 

Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Trinity 

College, Hartford. 

The subject of Meteorology is of the deepest interest to all. Its 

phenomena every where surround us, and ought to be as familiarly 



Prof. Bvocklc&by's Series. 19 

known by the scholar as his arithmetic or philosophy. This work 
treats on " Winds in General, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Water Spouts, 
Kain, Fogs, Clouds, Dew, Snow, Hail, Thunder-storms, Rainbow, 
Haloes, Meteorites, Northern Lights, &c. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

From Denison Olmsted, LL. D., President of Yale College. 

" I have perused your work on Meteorology, which you were 
so kind as to send me, and am much pleased with the manner in 
which you have treated these subjects ; the selection of topics being 
in my view judicious, and the style luminous, and well adapted to 
readers of every age, whether learned or unlearned. 

M I should rejoice to see such a school-book introduced into all 
our schools and academies. No natural science is more instructive, 
more attractive, and more practically useful, than Meteorology, 
treated as you have treated it, where the philosophical expla- 
nation.* of the various phenomena of the atmosphere are founded 
upon an extensive induction of facts. This science is more par- 
ticularly interesting to the young, because it explains so many 
things, that are daily occurring around them, and it thus inspires a 
for philosophical reasoning. I think the work cannot 
fail to be well received as a valuable addition to our list of text- 
book- 



From J. L. Comstock, M. D., Author of Natural Phil 
Chemistry, Botany, Geology, Mineralogy, and Physiology. 
" Professor Brocklesby, of Trinity College, has submitted to my 
perusal a 4 Treatise on Meteorology,' written by himself, and with 
the arrangement and science of which 1 am much pleased. The 
Professor wishes to have his treatise published as a school-book, 
and, considering the interest which the several subjects it em- 
braces excites in the minds of all, both old and young, rich and 
poor, I see not why such a book, when once introduced, should not 
have a large circulation. I see no reason why Meteorology, in 
many respects, has not as many claims as a school-book as Chem- 
istry or Natural Philosophy. Indeed, I should like to see Pro- 
test >r B.'s book introduced into schools as a companion of my 
Philosophy." 

Recommended also by 

Bexj. Silliman, LL. D. 
Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, 
Rev. Hoeace Hookee, 
Rev. Cuas. A. Goodeioh. 
This work has proved highly satisfactory in the school-room ; 
and is now the established text-book in a very large number of our 
best high schools and academies, where the natural sciences are 
taught 



20 Prof. Brocklesby's Series. 

VIEWS OF THE MICROSCOPIC WORLD.— ($1 12.) 

Designed for General Reading, and as a Hand-booh for Classes in 
Natural Sciences. By Prof. Bkooklesby. 

By the aid of a powerful microscope, the author has given m 
highly instructive accounts of Infusorial Animalcules, Fossil In 
fusoria, Minute Aquatic Animals, Structure of Wood and Herbs, 
Crystallization, parts of Insects, &c, &c. 

To those who are necessarily deprived of the aid of a micro- 
scope, and even to those who have it, this is a most valuable work. 
It is clearly and pleasantly written. The sections on the Animal- 
cules, Infusoria, and Crystallizations, are very beautifully illustrated 
with large and expensive plates. The decriptions of the different 
kinds of these wonderful little animals, many of which multiply by 
millions in a few hours, are really very instructive. There is no 
better school library book in the world. It should be read by 
every man, woman, and child. 



PROF. BROCKLESBY'S ASTRONOMY.— ($1 25.) 
This work is printed in the first style of the art, being amply 
illustrated ; and the approval bestowed upon it by the most com- 
petent judges is such as to entitle it to the careful examination of 
teachers. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

I have examined it with great care, compared it with other authors 
within my reach, for the purpose of selecting a suitable manual for my 
classes pursuing the ordinary college course of mathematics. The ar- 
rangement of topics seem to be natural and scientific, and the develop- 
ment of the subject progressive. It is comprehenshe and siitticient in 
scope and matter, and yet avoids the sad and frequent fault of being bare- 
ly topical and superficial, from attempting to teach too much. A special 
merit of the book is the truthfulness of its illustrations, in which are 
represented the phenomena of the heavens as they are, not as they scan. 
As a teacher I thank you for such a text book as many have been seek- 
ing in vain. 

T. W. T. Curtis, Principal High School, Hartford, Ct. 

Miss Jennette L. Douglass, of Neicburgh, iV. Y., who is so exten- 
sively known by the friends of education, says of Brocklesby's Astron- 
omy : " It must find its way into our best schools, as the ideas it contains 
are so clear and comprehensive, and its plate and print so plain and ele- 
gant, it contains all that is necessary for a young learner." 

Elementary works are too often mere compilations made from mate- 
rials furnished by others. This is in no sense the case in Brock lesoy"s 
Astronomy. The reader will at once perceive that the author not only 
thoroughly understands his subject, but possesses the happy faculty of 
simplyfying it, and adapting it to the ordinary intelligence ol the reauer 



/. Olney's Geographical Series. 21 



Fjb descriptions, aided by well drawn diagrams, make every point plain, 
and we may safely say, we have not met with any other manual which 
tc happily unfolds the elements of one of the most charming sciences 
to which human study can be directed. 

a The Philadelphia Presbyterian. 

Those, who know the author will readily understand that this work is 
one of no small value. He stands among the comparatively few scientific 
rnt-n who posseu strong practical characteristics, and that degree of in- 
sight and industry that enables them to comprehend and execute a text- 
b""k. adapted to the wants of any class of mind, 'ihe book is thoroughly 
and attractively illustrated, clear and comprehensive in the text, and di- 
rect and thorough in its system of questions. 

Springfield (Mass.) Republican. 

I think Brocklesby's Astronomy the best of any with which I am ac- 
quainted. U. S. Abbott, Teacher High School, Brattleboro, Vt. 

To Professor Brocklesby, of Trinity College, Hartford, who has already 
written well upon Meteorology and Views of the Microscopic World, wo 
are indebted for the Elements of Astronomy. This volume is beautifully 
and intelligibly illustrated. It brings Astronomical knowledge down to 
the present date. It is full without being dilfuse, and terse without ob- 
scurity. Every scientific term is explained The rules for determining 
the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies are wholly ampli- 
fied. In ad respects we can recommend the work as a very complete and 
practical elementary treatise. N. Y. Daily Times 



J. Olney's Geographical Series, 

Comprises the following Works : 

Frimary Geography. With Colored Maps. . . . $0 25 

Quarto Geography. With several New Maps. . . . 75 

Geography and Atlas. Do, do. . . . 112 

Outline Maps. And Key 6 00 

It is believed these works excel all others, for the following 
reasons : 

1, The clearness and correctness of definitions. 

2. The gradual arrangement of subjects. 
8. Unity of design marks the series. 

4. The use of initial letters only. 

5. The fact that children delight in them. 

6. Their cheapness. 

The attention of teachers, whose range of subjects includes 
geography, is respectfully and particularly called to Mr. Olney's 
Geographical Works. These works, more especially the School 
Geography and Atlas, have been in use for several years, and so far 
as the publishers have beeu able to ascertain, it is the general testi- 



22 J- Olney^s Geograpniccd Series. 

mony of teachers that the " Practical System of Modern Geo- 
graphy " is the best work for practical use that has ever appeared. 
But recent works have been put forth, claiming to be made upon 
superior principles, and modestly intimating that all previous stand- 
ard works are so inferior in construction as to render them de- 
servedly obsolete. Indeed it is claimed that there has been no ad- 
vance in geographical text-books for many years, until suddenly a 
new Daniel has come to judgment. In looking carefully over the 
recent inprovements so boastfully claimed, we are unable to dis- 
cover any which have not been substantially drawn from Olney's 
Geographies. 

Mr. Olney commenced the plan of simplifying the first lesson 
and teaching a child by what is familiar to the exclusion of astron- 
omy. He commenced the plan of having only those things repre- 
sented on the maps which the pupil was required to learn. He 
originated the system of classification, and of showing the govern- 
ment, religion, &c, by symbols. He first adopted the system of 
carrying the pupil over the earth by means of the Atlas. His 
works first contained cuts in which the dress, architecture, animals, 
internal improvements, &c, of each country are grouped, so as to 
be seen at one view. His works first contained the world as 
known to the ancients, as an aid to Ancient History, and a synopsis 
of Physical Geography with maps. In short, we have seen no 
valuable feature in any geography which has not originally ap- 
peared in these works ; and we think it not too much to claim 
that in many respects most other works are copies of these. We 
think that a fair and candid examination will show that Olney's 
Atlas is the largest, most systematic, and complete of any yet pub- 
lished, and that the Quarto and Modern School Geographies con- 
tain more matter, and that better arranged, than any similar works. 
The attention of teachers is again called to these works, and they 
are desired to test the claims here asserted. 

TESTIMONIALS. 
From President Humphreys, D. D., Amhersc College. 
Mr. J. Olney. — Dear Sir, I have examined both your improved 
School Atlas and Modern System of Geography with more than 
ordinary satisfaction. Your arrangement of topics appears to me 
better adapted to the comprehension of the child, and to follow 
more closely the order of nature, than any other elementary sys- 
tem of the kind with which I am acquainted. Instead of having 
to encounter the diagrams, problems, and definitions of Astromony 
as soon as he opens his Geography, the young learner is first pre- 
sented with the elements of the science in their simplest and most 
attractive forms. His curiosity is of course awakened. That 
which would otherwise be regarded as an irksome task, is conteni- 



/. Olney's Geographical Series. 



plated with pleasure. The opening mind exults in the exercise of 
its faculties, and in the ease with which it every day gathers new 
intellectual treasures. The constant use which yon oblige the 
child to make of his Atlas, I consider of a great advantage, and 
the substitution of initials for the names of countries, mountains, 
rivers, &c., a valuable improvement. There is, moreover, a con- 
densation of matter throughout, combined with a clearness and 
simplicity which cannot fail, I think, of being highly appreciated 
by all enlightened and judicious teachers. Your method of desig- 
nating the length of the principal rivers is extremely simple and 
convenient. 

From Rev. Anson W. Oummings, D. D., President of " Holson Conference 
College" and Ex-President of " McKcndree College." 
Olney's Geography and Atlas, Revised Edition, are so beautifully 
printe ; and gradual in arrangement of the subjects, so correct in 

facts, so comprehensive in topics, and so cheap, that they are entitled to 
a place in every American School house and Academy. 

I have long thought Olney's Geography and Atlas a first-rate 

school-book, and the publishers of it have certainly given to it an 

attractive appearance to the teacher and pupil. I have used it, I 

think, nearly ten years of my teaching, and always found the suc- 

ive editions reliable for accuracy, and well up to the times. 

M. F. Cowdeey, 
Supt. Schools, Sandusky. 
Similar memorials have been received from the following gen 
tlemen : 

Salem Town, LL. D. F. A Brigham, 111. 

Pre* Lord, X. H. EP. Barrows, N. Y. 

Pres. Bates, Vt. P. Hardy, N. H. 

Robert Vaux, Perm. R. S. Howard, Mass. 

M. L. Brown, N. Y. K Kingsbury, " 

M. S. Hawley, Mich. E. Had, Vt. 

J. S. Dickson, Mich. A. K. Slade, R. I. 

N. Brittan, N. Y. J. Alwood, N. Y. 

J. N. Smith, Iowa. J. Estabrook, Mich. 

T. 9. Bradley, Ohio. A. D. Sturtevant, HL 

. A. D. Wright, " A. G. Wilder, 

N. S. Scott, N. Y. R. C. Corey, Ark. 

Isaac Glutton, 111. C. B. Crumb, N. Y 

And over 500 others. 



(( 


(( 


Spelling-book, 


u 


(( 


First Reader, 


u 


u 


Second " 


u 


u 


Third " 


u 


H 


Fourth " 


w 


(( 


Fifth « 


M 


M 


Speaker, 



24 The Students' Series. 

The Students' Series. 

By J. S. Denman, A. M. 

The Students' Primer, .... 7 

13 
13 
2i> 

. 40 
75 

. 94 
31 

This series of books excels all others in the following particu- 
lars: 

1. In the manner of teaching the alphabet and first principles 
of Reading, as shown in the Primer, Speller, and First Reader. 

2. In the beautiful classification and arrangement of the Speller, 
by which pupils are easily taught to spell and pronounce words 
correctly. By the aid of suffixes and prefixes, they learn to form 
derivative words, and may obtain at the same time a correct 
knowledge of their signification. 

3. The child is taught to read by beginning with words of one 
and two letters, and advancing gradually to louger words. 

4. The Primer is so arranged that each word is used in spelling 
before used in the Reading Lessons. 

5. The First Reader contains lessons of one syllable, composed 
of natural objects, such as birds, tiowers, shrubs, &c, that greatly 
interest children. 

6. The same class of lessons in all the readers. 

7. The lessons are peculiarly interesting and instructive. 

8. The relation of one book to the other is very regular and 
systematic. 

9. The judicious use of plates to embellish the books and illus- 
trate the text. 

10. A judicious use of Questions, not so profuse as to embar- 
rass the pupil, nor so few as to prevent the teacher from asking 
them. 

11. The Print is very distinct and clear, from the large type in 
the Primer gradually diminishing to the common, ordinary type in 
general use. 

12. The variety of style, and the variety of subjects. 



Tkt Students' Series. 25 

13. The adoption of Webster's Royal Quarto Dictionary as a 
(Standard in spelling. 

14. In the sound moral tone pervading the whole series. No 
extracts from novels — no low and vulgar language has been al- 
lowed to blacken their pages. 

lor was for a time the Editor of " The Student," and 

in that first produced the system on which these Readers is founded. 

It received such high encomiums that the Author thought best to 

reproduce it in book form for schools. Hence the series of Stu- 

lers. Prof Page, late Principal of the New York State 

Normal School, said of this system, " It is the best lever saw for 

teaching the rirst principles of Reading." Such testimony is of the 

9t value, and none need be afraid to use the books on such a 

mmendation. 

We present a very few names of the great number which have 
been received. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The Students' Series is, in my opinion, the best in use. I believe 
I class of young student-; will learn twice as much, with the same 
bej would from any other system. The books of this 
1 in the purity and attraction of their style. I have in- 
troduced them. G. B. Crumb, H. Y. 

I am so well pleased with them, and find them so well adapted 
to the wants of children, that I am determined to have them. 

H. II. Senter, III. 

The Students' Series I think to be far superior to any extant. 

S. 0. Simonds, III. 

Your Students' Speller has been adopted by the School Board 
of this city. J. R. Webb, Indianapolis. 

I like your Students' books well, and shall introduce them. 

Rev. M. S. Hawley, Mich. 

I shall introduce the Students' Speller. Send me several dozen. 

O. A. Aroher, Albany. 

I think more of the Students' Reading Books than any others 
with which I am acquainted. Ira Sayles. 

I will do all I can to introduce the Students' Series of Books, 
believing them to be the best for schools of any before the public. 

J. L. Enos, Wis. 



26 Kirkhara's Elocution. 

I am highly pleased with the Students' Series, and shall use my 
exertions to introduce it as fast as possible. 

J. Mereifield, \ T A 

Concurred in by Geo. C. Mep.p.ifield, \ 

We use the Students' Books, and shall use no others. 

E. Lane, N. T. 

I use the Speller. It is just the book. 

W. M. James, Ga. 

I am using the Students' Readers, and like them so well that I 
urged their introduction at Monroeville, where they are now used. 

D. F. Dewolf, Nbrwalh, 

I have used the Students' Speller, and am greatly pleased with 
it. The Readers are excellent. N. B. Baeeeb. 

We are using the Students' Series, and like it better than any 
other. A. Porteb, N". T. 

We use, and admire the Students' Series. 

J. Pooler, JST. T. 

I have examined the Students' Readers, and shall introduce 
them. P. J. Faerixgtox. 

We like the Students' Books much. The Board has adopted 
them. E. B. Coon, Covington, Ky. 

I have adopted the Students' Speller. 

Oscar Harris, K. J. 

We have adopted the Students' Series because we like it better 
than any other. A. L. Bingham, Mich. 

Your Students' Books are introduced here, and are well liked. 
Prof. H. Wheeler, G-reoicastle, Ind. 

We have adopted the Students' Speller. 

Dr. J. Nicholas, Kirtland. 

The Board of Education has adopted the Students' Speller. 
Send us five hundred. E. A. Saeldon, Syrac. - 



Kirkham's Elocution. 



This fc one of the best Elocutions ever printed. It contains a 
varied and interesting selection of very useful matter, carefully ar- 
ranged. It is a standard work,- and now used in some of the best 
schools in the country ; among which are the Xorraal School, 
Philadelphia; Lower Canada College ; Toronto Academy, to. 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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